M' 



AN OUTLINE 

OF 

FOLITICAI. ECONOMY, 

DESIGNED FOR SEMINARIES, 

AND 

INTENDED TO EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF THIS W'l- 
PORTANT SCIENCE, BY FAMILIAR EXAMPLES, AND TO 
EXHIBIT MORE PARTICULARLY THE GREAT IMPORTANCE 

OF 

AGRICULTURE, MINING mDUSTRY, MANU- 

FACTURES, AND INTERNAL 

IMPROVEMENTS, 

TO 

NATIONAL WEALTH AND PROSPERITY. 



PUILJiBELTHM: 

PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, 
1838. 



Hill'- 1 






RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Jennison's Treatise on Political Economy, appears 
generally well adapted for elementary schools. It would 
give me pleasure to learn, that the author, by a liberal 
patronage, could be encouraged to send his work to 
press. 

Roberts Vaux. 
Philadelphia, Mulberry St. 5th mo. Z9th, ] 827. 

Without having been able to read thoroughly, Mr. 
Jennison's Treatise on Political Economy, which he left 
with me for perusal, 1 cheerfully concur in recommend- 
ing it to public patronage, as the subject cannot be too 
much treated for public information. 

C. J. Ingersoll. 

Philadelphia, JVov. 17th, 1827. 

I have examined with some care the elementary trea- 
tise on Political Economy, by Mr. Jennison; and think 
it calculated to do much service, in directing the atten- 
tion of our youth to this important subject. It appears 
•^o be well adapted to schools. 

Jos. R. Chandler. 

Philadelphia, Oct. 29tlt, 1827. 

Having examined Mr. Jennison's work on Political 
Economy, as far as a limited op[)ortunity would admit, 
I feel a pleasure in attesting my opinion of its merit. 
Most works, on this subject, are clouded with intricate 
discussions, and recondite theoretical views; — rendering 
their contents nearly inaccessible to those who would be 
chiefly profited by this branch of knowledge. In the 
present instance, this objection seems quite obviated. 
Principles are rendered plain and practical, by nume- ' 
lous apposite examples, and the subject brought fairly 
to the level of academical education. 

N. Dodge. 
Philadelphia^ Jan, 2rd, 1828. 



OUTLINE 

OF 

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Question. What is Politics? — Answer. Politics is the 
name of that science which develops the institutions 
best calculated for national defence and protection with- 
out;, and for the establishment and maintenance of so- 
cial order within a community. 

"What is Political Economy? — Political Economy is 
that science, which develops the sources, the distribu- 
tion, the accumulation, and the consumption of national 
wealths 

What sciences are necessary to, or connected with 
political economy} — History, Geography and Statistics. 
What is history? — History is that science which in- 
forms us of tlie origin, progress, rise and decay of ancient 
empires, and the past condition of modern nations, with 
the progress of the arts and sciences in general. 

What is geography? — Geography is that science, which 
informs us of the earth, the situation and extent of coun- 
tries, the climate, soil, productions of each region, &c. 

What is statistics? — Statistics is the name of that 
science, which treats of the actual circumstances and 
condition of nations, in regard to their population, pro- 
ductions, agriculture, manufactures, trade and resources, 
with the manners, character and habits of the people, &c. 
What is national wealth? — National wealth is the ag- 
gregate of individual wealth, or the successful result of 
the efforts of individuals to improve their condition. 

What are the natural elements of national wealth.^ — 
A serene and healthy climate, rich soil, abundance and 
variety of productions, good springs and streams of wa- 
ter, valuable mill-seats and water privileges for manu- 
facturing purposes. Abundance and variety of minerals, 
earths and raw materials of manufactures, particularly 
B 



2 JElements of JVationul Wealth, 

coal, iron, copper, lead, and salt. The materials of good 
roads, railways and canals, as gravel, waterlime, &c., 
navigable rivers, extent of sea board, good harbours, and 
rich products of foreign commerce. 

What are the acquired elements of national wealth, 
and which bring into successful operation its natural 
elements? — These are capital, labour, skill, enterprize. 
and talents of its inhabitants. 

What else is important to this end? — The correct and 
favourable policy of the national government: such a 
policy as is most conducive to promote the interest and 
welfare of the people, &c. 

Of the natural materials of national wealth, can all be 
regarded as important to national wealth and prosperity? 
— They are each important, but the concentration of 
theni all (in some degree) is necessary to a gradual ad- 
vancement in national wealth and prosperity. 

How is this? — A favourable climate in regard to health 
and vegetation, and a soil exuberantly rich, are undoubt- 
edly great and important advantages; but abundance and 
variety of productions, the possession of valuable and 
rich staples of foreign commerce, abundance of coal and 
timber, valuable water privileges for manufactures, and 
favourable avenues of internal communication, are also 
of primary importance. 

How is the climate of a region to be regarded? — The 
climate is important chiefly in regard to vegetation, but 
the physical superiority of the South (of Europe) is more 
than counterbalanced by the superior energy, zeal and 
enterprize of the north. Great Britain and France exhibit 
an aspect of national wealth, prosperity and power, far 
superior to any thing which can be seen in Italy, Spain 
and Turkey. It is only in the extremes of heat and cold, 
that the climate can be said to exert an unfavourable 
influence on the human character. 

What are the climates that are the most favourable to 
national prosperity? — The climates of the temperate 
zones are most favourable to the gradual advancement 
of a nation in prosperity and wealth. 

What may be observed in regard to the soil and aspect 
of a region? — In general, regions having a variety of as- 
pect and soil, possess some important advantages, over 
regions of a rich soil and level surface. 



Elements of JVational JVealtlu % 

What are these advantages? — Good water, plentiful 
streams, and valuable water privileges, the raw materials 
of manufactures, and superior facilities of constructing 
good roads and railways; and lastly, a greater variety 
and diversity of its agricultural productions. 

Is there any advantage to be derived from a variety 
of soil? — There are great advantages, as a variety of soil 
presents a wider range of pursuits to the agriculturist, 
a greater variety of objects to liis capital and enterprize, 
and, on the whole, a better field tor the sphere of his 
enterprizes; as a variety of productions will have a ten- 
dency to check that excessive competition now prevail- 
ing among the agricultural class, the cultivators of grainj 
of tobacco and cotton. 

Whence does this competition chiefly arise? — From 
the too great accumulation of these productions, occa- 
sioned by the capital and labour of the agriculturist 
being limited principally to these articles, instead of the 
limited culture of the vine for making wine. The olive, 
the almond, arrow root, sago, the fig, opium, rhubarb, the 
yellow leaf tobacco of which segars are manufactured, 
hemp, flax, maddex-, wood, saffron, and other articles to 
which the soil and climate of the United States are well 
calculated. 

What advantages are to be derived from the second 
and third rate soils? — The inferior soils are capable of 
producing many articles of great importance in a na- 
"tional view, and sources of great commercial wealth, for 
which the rich and luxuriant soil is but ill adapted. 

What articles require an indifl'erent soil? — The vine 
which affords an important and valuable staple of com- 
merce, is not at all adapted to the rich soil of the allu- 
vial interval, but delights in the gravelly and sandy 
declivities of the hills and mountains. The olive which 
affords also another important staple of commerce, the 
yellow leaf tobacco, the coffee, and many species of fruits 
and vegetables, as well as the rearing of sheep. 

What prominent examples of the two latter may be 
produced or exhibited?— First, in regard to the culture 
of fruit and vegetables. The sandy plains of New Jersey 
produce nearly all the sweet potatoes, the peaches and 
the water-melons, which are raised for the market of 
Philadelphia; to which the more luxuriant soil of Penn- 



4 Variety of Soil and Aspect. 

sylvania is not calculated, but which produces some 
other articles in great abundance, and rears great num- 
bers of neat stock, and sustains large dairies for the 
same market. Hence may be seen the manifest and great 
advantages, which a variety of soil affords to regions 
within the influence of commerce: to which may be ad- 
ded, that many kinds of grain, the cotton, and even cof- 
fee will succeed in a second rate soil. 

What examples can be brought of the advantage of 
mountains over extensive plains? — This is clearly proved 
in the situations of Spain, France and Switzerland. In 
Spain, the mountains afford a rich and abundant food 
during summ.er for extensive flocks of sheep, which in 
winter are driven to the plain of Andalusia. France ex- 
hibits the benefit which is afforded by the vicinity of 
mountains in the culture of the olive, as the shelter 
from them gives sure and constant protection against the 
cold, which otherwise would destroy this valuable pro- 
duct. And Switzerland also presents a third proof of the 
utility and value of mountainous regions in the cultiva- 
tion of the grape on their tops. 

Do fully and mountainous regions afford any other 
natural advantages in respect to national wealth? — hilly 
and elevated regions, generally afford better water, su- 
perior water privileges, greater abundance and variety 
of ti\e raw materials of manufactures, particularly coal 
and iron. Third, better materials for the construction of 
roads, railways, and sometimes even canals. As the ma- 
terials for the two former cannot readily bo obtained. in 
level regions, and the hills and mountains afford a con- 
stant supply of water, which admits of canals being car- 
ried over hills and mountains. 

What region in the United States affords the great 
advantage and utility of the inferior soils? — The states 
of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. The county of 
Barnstable, in the former, containing a soil not worth 
cultivation, contains within its limits, one million, eight 
hundred thousand feet of salt works; the cost of which, 
including the value of the land, the expense of mills for 
pumping the water, &c., amounts to one million, eight 
hundred thousand dollars. 

How many feet will an acre of land accommodate? — 
From one thousand, to one thousand six hundred feet; 



staple of Commerce. Water Power. 6 

and in situations favourable for the business, readilj 
commands one hundred dollars per acre; and in some 
instances it has been sold at a much higher price: while 
for cultivation, this land would not be worth one-fourth 
of that sum, as the poorest and driest soils ai'e the best 
adapted to making salt. 

To what cause- is this advance in the value of real pro- 
perty to be attributed? — Without doubt to the increase 
of this manufacture. 

Is the possession of rich staples of commerce an im- 
portant advantage? — -It is indeed, as it affords a valuable 
article of exportation to foreign regions, and a medium 
of commercial exchange with foreign nations. 

Into how many classes may the valuable staples of 
commerce be ranked? — Into four principal ones. viz. of 
agriculture, of the forest, of the mines, and of manufac- 
turing industry. Sugar, cocoa, coSee, spices, &c. belong 
to the first class; valuable furs to the second; gold, silver, 
diamonds, &c. to the third class; and laces, silks, mus 
lins, jewellery, &c. are of the fourth. 

What may be remarked in regard to valuable water 
privileges, the possession of coal, iron, and other raw 
materials of manufactures? — These are important and 
valuable elements of national wealth. As a region having 
but inferior advantages in respect to climate, soil, &c. 
is enabled by the possession of these natural advanta- 
ges, to carry on extensive manufactures, which will be 
sources of employment, subsistence and wealtli to its 
inhabitants, and will be able to sustain a denser popula- 
tion in comfortable circumstances, than some othei 
regions more favoured in regard to soil and climate. 

What examples of the benefit of these advantages can 
be produced? — The New England states in general pos- 
sessing inferior advantages as regards fertility of soil, 
but having numerous and valuable water privileges, and 
other facilities for carrying on manufoctures, are enabled 
to rival the other states in the extent and variety of the 
cotton and woollen branches. 

What particular places have risen into importance 
hereby? — Lowell, in Massacliusetts, in 1821, contained 
only three or four dwellings; white at this time, 1827, it 
contains a population of five thousand, six large cotton 
mills operating twenty-five thousand spindles, and about 
B 2 



6 TFater Power, Coal. Sfc. 

one hundred and fifty power looms, calculated to manu- 
facture five million, thirty-tv/o thousand, four hundred 
and eight yards of cotton cloth, and consuming annually 
one million, one hundred seventy-six thousand and 
eighty-two pounds of raw cotton; about one thousand 
two hundred persons are employed in these mills, oi 
whom nine-tenths are females. The printing works em- 
ploy above one hundred hands, and prepare two million, 
five hundred thousand yards of printed goods (at an 
average of eighteen cents). The machine shop fur- 
nishes employment to one hundred and eighty personv« 
whose wages will average ninety cents per day; but many 
of the men earn from four to six dollars per day. About 
one hundred and fifty tons of iron are consumed annual- 
ly at these establishments. Besides those employed in the 
cotton mills, about one hundred and fifty mechanics, as 
masons, carpenters, &c. find constant employment. The 
amount of capital invested is about two millions, four 
hundred thousand dollars; (here is also a woollen facto- v 
ry employingnearly one l>undred hands,and manufactur- 
ing annually two hundred and twenty-five thousand yards 
of cassime^'cs and sattinetts. Land has risen greatly in 
value in and about this town. Ware, (in Massachusetts) 
from an obscure settlement, has risen to a thriving and 
populous town by means of its valuable water privileges. 
Great Falls in New Hampshire, Manayunk in Pennsyl- 
vania, and many other places might be cited.) 

To what causes is Pittsburg chiefly indebted for its 
present importance? — To the great abundance of coal 
and iron to be found in its vicinity, by which it is enabled 
to carry on extensive manufactures of iron, glass, paper, 
&c. 

What advantages does abundance of coal give to a 
re-i-ion over water privileges? — By means of the former, 
manufactures can be prosecuted through the year con- 
tinually; whilst manufactures operated by water falls, 
are liable to be interrupted for two or three months in 
the year: as is the case at some towns in Massachusetts 
and other states. Another advantage to be found in the 
abundance of coal and fuel, is exemption from periodical 
fevers, &c. which are occasioned oiten by the erection 
of mill-dams; the materials of roads, &c. are also great 
and important advantages. The abundance of stones* 



Labour. Machinery. * 

gravel, waterlime, and other materials of roads and ca- 
nals, as the interior commerce of a region, is of vast 
importance to its prosperity, &c. 

What are the efficient and active agents, by means of 
which, the materials or elements of national wealth are 
brought into active operation? — These are labour, capi- 
tal, skill, industry and enterprise. 

What is labour? — Labour is that efficient and active- 
agent, by the operation of which, all kinds of industry 
and enterpize, whether in agriculture, manufactures, or 
the fine arts, are brought to a successful termination. It 
is that operation, by means of which, the ^services, tal- 
ents and skill of individuals are brought into operation. 

What is the ultimate effect of labour when applied to 
tlie raw materials of manufactures? — The finer fabricks 
of cotton, as tamboured and embroidered muslins, some 
of which contain not mor^ than one pound of cotton, 
(costing say ten or twelve and a-half cents) are by the 
operation of labour and machinery, carried to the value 
of ninety dollars. A pound of steel, prepared by labour 
into watch-chains, beads and other ornaments, may be 
brought to the value of one hundred pounds sterling, 
(four hundred and fifty dollars) or more. Tlie manufac- 
ture of glass by labour, may be augmented in value to a 
great extent; as lustres, chandeliers, &c. the materials 
of which, may not have cost more than five or six pounds, 
by labour may be carried to the value of five hundred to 
one thousand per cent.* 

What may labour be termed? — Productive labour may 
be denominated the chief source of national wealth; and 
of so great importance is it in regard to national wealth, 
that without manual labour, or some efficient substitute 
for it, no important enterprize can be accomplished. 

What is the most efficient substitute for manual la- 
bour? — Machinery is often rendered an efficient substi- 
tute for manual labour, in which case, the same quantity 
of work is accomplished at a cost greatly reduced to the 
workmen, and often in less time. 

What is the diminution of manual labour in tlie cotton 
manufacture in Great Britain estimated, and what is 
the present power of steami^ — In Great Britain, the; 

♦ * Colquhoun's Resources of Brit- Emp. 



'i Machinery. Capital. 

diminution of manual labour in that branch, is estimated 
as two hundred for one. By the power of steam, every 
machine to which it is applied, receives not only an ad- 
dition, but a multiplication of force. The power thus 
produced in 1820, was computed to be equal to three 
hundred and twenty thousand horses, or about two mil- 
lion, two hundred and forty thousand men. It is said 
that thirty thousand pieces of metal have been coined 
and counted in England in one hour, by a steam-engine 
adapted to mechanism, and capable of application to the 
button manufactory, and to other branches susceptible 
of such operations. 

What are the other inventions, the most important to 
the manufixctures and arts, after the steam engine?—- 
Arkwright's machine for spinning cotton, and Whit- 
ney's gin for cleaning cotton. 

What is the principal eSect of Improved machinery as 
regards the arts, &c.? — To abridge labour and to reduce 
the expense of production in the fabrication of an arti- 
cle. The introduction of the improved power looms by 
one of the most extensive manufacturing companies in 
Massachusetts, for some time gave them a decided ad- 
vantage, and enabled that establishment to undersell 
nearly all the other manufactories. When, however, the 
use of these power looms became general, this establish- 
ment lost the great advantage it had heretofore posses- 
sed in the exclusive employment of that machinery. 

What is capital, and in what does it consist? — Capi- 
tal is one of the primary agents in the creation of na- 
tional wealth. The capital of the merchant consists 
in his goods, on their transit either by land or by 
water; or whenvvare-housed in different directions. The 
capital of the manufacturer consists in his buildings, im- 
provements, his machinery required to carry on Ins bu- 
siness, and, in a small degree, in an active circulating 
medium, and his raw materials. That of the mechanic 
consists in his tools, implements, &c. That of the culti- 
vator is vested in farming buildings, liye stock, fences 
and inclosures, &c. The capital oi*a nation is composed 
of the sum total of private capital; and in proportion as 
a nation is industrious and prosperous, in the same pro- 
portion is that part of its capital vested in money, small.. 



Capital, incorporated Companies, Sfc. 6 

when compared with the total amount of the national 
capital. 

What proportion does the circulating medium bear to 
the national capital? — Neckar estimates the circulating 
medium in France, in 1784, at 2,200,000,000 francs; 
while Arthur Young estimates the total capital, in 
French agriculture alone, at more than 11,000,000,000 
francs. Bick estimates the total capital of Great Bri- 
tain at 2,300,000,000 pounds sterling, 810,000,000,000. 

Is capital required to carry on extensive manufac- 
tures? — An extensive capital, of which a part must be 
circulating medium, is important to the commencement 
and successful prosecution of manufactures on an exten- 
sive scale; and, in fine, to the success of every species 
of industry: as it is the principal foundation of the en- 
terprise, and without it, no large undertaking can be 
prosecuted to advantage, or with prospect of success. 

What is the usual consequence of attempts to con- 
duct manufactures or any other business, without a solid 
capital? — Attempts to carry on any business whatever^ 
even on a moderate scale, without a solid capital, gener- 
ally terminate in disappointment, loss, perhaps ruin to 
the projector; and embarrassment and loss to his credi- 
tors, who are frequently willing to compound with the 
bankrupt for the payment of their debts, at a discount of 
50 and sometimes 75 per cent. 

Have not the instances of complete success in busi- 
ness without any capital been frequent?—- They have in 
some measure; but in general, where one enterprise 
meets with success, fifty, perhaps more, fail, and termi- 
nate in embarrassment; and, in truth, these casual in- 
stances of success, are to be regarded rather as cases 
of mere good fortune, and, perhaps, the result of extra- 
ordinary industry and skill in the individual, than as 
general rules of conduct. 

Why do incorporated companies, with the command 
of an extensive capital, conducted by skill and ability, 
possess decided and important advantages over indi- 
viduals in the conduct of extensive manufactures?— 
Possessing greater resources within themselves, and not 
depending on the sales of their goods, as many indi- 
viduals are obliged to do, they are enabled to withstand 



1 Skill, enterprise, and merino speculation- 

those disastrous fluctuations, and to meet the excessive 
competitions which often proves fatal to individuals and 
smaller establishments, by witliholding their articles 
from sale until the price rises, while others are obliged 
to make sacrifice of their goods below the cost of them. 

Skill and Enterprise. What effect is produced by 
skill and enterprise? — With labour and capital, skill 
and enterprise have an important effect and bearing in 
the production and extension of national wealth. As an 
extensive capital, valuable and efficient water power, 
abundance and cheapness of the raw materials, and 
other advantages, will only operate to the injury and 
loss, if not ruin of the manufacturer, if he possess not 
proper talents and skill to conduct his establishment, oi 
manage his business. 

Are skill and enterprise required in all branches of 
business? — Skill and enterprise are important to the suc- 
cess of every degree and kind of business, without ex- 
cepting agriculture. In this important pursuit, a com- 
plete and perfect acquaintance with the culture and 
management of those articles to which his capital and 
attention is given, and a skilful application of this 
knowledge, are highly important and valuable to the 
cultivator, in order to gain any profit from his exertions; 
although the want of them may be attended with less 
disastrous effects than in commerce. 

In what were exhibited the important effects of skill 
and practical knowledge, as also the ruinous and impo- 
litic consequences of ignorance and unskilful manage- 
ment? — The Merino speculation, which prevailed to 
such an extent in the United States during 1813-14-15, 
clearly exhibits the importance of practical knowledge 
and skill in the management of any business; and the 
impolitic and disastrous consequences of attempting a 
business, without skill and ability. The enterprise was 
attempted by individuals, who, with some exceptions, 
were entirely destitute of any information and practical 
knowledge as to the nature of the pursuit to which their 
attention was given. Hence to very many of them, the 
speculation was a ruinous one, and but few realized 
any profit from the attempt. 

Were the disastrous consequences of this rash specu- 
lation confined to the speculators? — They were not con* 



Industry, and Economy 1 i 

fined to the rash speculators, who, however, were the 
principal sufferers: but the unfavourable result of this 
speculation, has tended, (as other attempts conducted 
without skill have done) to prejudice the minds of the 
community at large, particularly the farming interest, 
against agricultural improvements, which have had a 
favourable effect in the promotion of agriculture, when 
managed with skill and ability, (as appears by the exam- 
ple of Great Britain). The important and beneficial ef- 
fects of sfciff and enterprise, are often exhibited in the 
superior qualities and properties of the manufactures ot 
an establishment skilfully managed, which, for that rea- 
son, command a decided preference and superiority in 
the market, over those of others managed with less abi- 
lity- 

Industry and Economy. What effects have skill and 
economy in regard to national wealth? — Industry and 
economy also bear an important part in the production 
of national wealth, as on the possession of these proper- 
ties, sometimes depends the result of various enterpri-- 
. ses; in other words, the fortunate or unfavourable condi- 
tion and situation of individuals. A man may possess an 
extensive capital, skill and enterprise, and yet, unless 
he have a moderate share of industry and economy in 
the management of his business and household, he will 
expose himself to the unjustifiable though common error 
of living beyond his income; and, in consequence of it, 
to contract debts, without the means of paying them; 
whereby his creditors are unjustly defrauded, or, in or- 
der to meet these impolitic but just demands, the family 
are reduced to suffering and distress; and, in either case, 
he loses his character for integrity. 

What important maxim is applicable to all men? 

Never to live beyond orfe's income, and, if already op- 
pressed by debts exceeding his disposable funds, he 
ought to contract his expenses, and endeavour, by 
means of skill, industry and economy, to liberate himself 
from them. A man who has an income of §6,000 a year, 
can afford to live in a different style, or expend more 
than he whose income does not exceed 81,000; but still, 
if he lives beyond his income, (86,000) he violates an 
important rule of political economy. 



13 



A summary view of Europe in regard to its natural ad- 
vantages of climate, soil, capacity of foreign com- 
merce and interior trade. 

England. In soil, iufevior to Flanders and Milan, but 
more fertile than Spain or the levels of the north of 
Germany: it may be said to hold a medium, and to have 
a claim to rank with the average of the French and Aus- 
trian territories. 

Chief natural advantages. Its insular situation, fine 
pasturage, productive soil, (when rightly improved) the 
productiveness of its mines and facilities of inland navi- 
gation. 

Ireland. In point of soil, inland and maritime navi- 
gation equal to England. Her towns are, however, 
comparatively small; her manufactures are considerable 
only in one province. For the density of her population, 
she is indebted to the fertility of her soil and the gene- 
ral use of the potatoe, which can be raised with facility. 

Austria. Equal to France or England in fertility, but 
possessing few advantages for inland navigation, or man- 
ufactures; labours under the want of interior communi- 
cation. 

Prussia has few harbors, or navigable rivers; the 
roads are indifferent; the population is thin. 

Poland. Possessing the average fertility of Europe, 
has extensive marches. The population thin and wretch- 
ed; the causes of which are a long continuance of bad 
government, extreme vassalage of the peasantry, neglect 
of education, difficulty of internal communication, small 
extent of sea-board. The roads are bad, and the access 
to the interior circuitous. . 

France. Between these extremes France forms a me- 
dium; possessing a considerable extent of sea-board, but 
labouring under the disadvantage of an inland region, 
destitute of interior facilities of communication. Com- 
pared to the Austrian and Prussian states, France is an 
improved country; but on comparison with England, or 
the Netherlands, it falls below them. Superior in cli- 



Summary vieiv of Hurope. IS 

mate and equal in soil to England, she is greatly inferior 
in the density of her population, and still more in the 
average income of individuals. 

Italy. Few regions surpass Italy in natural advanta- 
ges, as to soil, climate, and, in the northeast part, in the 
means of internal communication and navigation; but it 
labours under the evils of a bigoted religion, indolence, 
and impolitic divisions into petty states, which combi- 
nation of circumstances, have prevented measures for 
the advancement of industry and the arts. 

Spain has a favourable climate, but in regard to as- 
pect, after Switzerland, is the most mountainous region 
in Europe; is destitute of facilities of inland navigation. 
The roads are few and indifferent; has a great extent of 
sea-board, but few navigable rivers; labours under a bad 
government, and the Catholic religion. 

Portugal is more favourably situated; has two great 
inlets to the ocean, the Tagus and the Douro, and pays 
a larger revenue than Spain. 

Germany in general has a varied surface and soil, and 
is productive in corn, wheat, fruit, wine, and pasturage. 
In regard to internal communication, possesses several 
large and navigable rivers. Abounds in the raw materials 
of manufactures, and her inhabitants are in general in- 
dustrious and persevering, and have made great advan- 
ces in the arts and sciences. 

Saxony is one of the best cultivated, and most pro- 
ductive regions in Europe. In literature, science, the arts 
and manufactures, she holds a high rank. 

Greece in aspect is mountainous, but on the whole, is 
a region highly conducive to the full development of 
the human frame and mental faculties. It abounds with 
many good harbours and fine mountain streams. The 
soil, though not very fertile, is yet productive, and more 
calculated for fruit than grain. The plains and vallies, 
however, produce in abundance, wheat, barley, corn and 
rice; and is adapted for wine, oil, silk, tobacco and cot- 
ton. These natural advantages, however, are in great 
measure counterbalanced bj' the extreme tyranny of the 
government, and a bigoted religion. 
C 



14 Summary view of Europe. 

A table of the different states in Europe, containing the 
number of square miles, the population to each square 
mile, revenue, ^'c. 





Sq. miles 


Population. 


pop. 
to s m 


Revenue 


Indiv." 
am. 


Norway 




950,000 


6 






Sweden Norway 












and Sw. Lapland 




3,600,000 


10 






Sweden 


36,000 


2,600,000 


25 


1,300,000 


10 


Hussia 


1,608,434 


37,000,000 


23 


18,000,000 


99 


Scot. Highlands 






30 




^ 


Turkey 


160,000 


8,000,000 


50 


5,000,000 


126 


Poland 


47,060 


2,830,000 


60 


1,200,000 


88 


Sardinia 


91,228 


520,000 


57 






Spain 


183,300 


11,000,000 


60 


6,000,000 


110 


Denmark 


2:. 917 


1,600,000 


73 


1,300,000 


16 n 


Hanover 


14,600 


1,300,000 


90 


900,000 


14 


Portugal 


40,100 


3,700,000 


90 


3,000,000 


163 


Switzerland 


19,230 


1,750,000 


91 


430,000 


50 


Wales 


8,125 


740,000 


96 






Austrian Empire 


232,053 


29,000,000 


112 


18,000,000 


124 


Prussian Domins. 


105 000 


10,500,000 


100 


7,000,000 


134 


Bararia 


30,000 


3,600,000 


120 


2,500,000 


14 


Sicily 


12,536 


1,655,000 


132 






Sardinian Dom. 


27,023 


4,000,000 


148 


2,200,000 


110 


States of the Ch. 


16,333 


2,460,000 


150 


900,000 


76 


Neapolitan Dom- 












inions and Sicily 




6,700,000 


154 


2,100,000 


80 


France with Cor- 












sica 


200,000 


30,700,000 


160 . 


37,000,000 


1 40 


Scot. Low Coun. 






150 




2 06 


Great Britain 


87,800 


14,500,000 


165 


40,000,000 


2 15 


Wirtemburg 


82,352 


1,400,000 


170 


1,000,000 


14 


Saxony 


8.492 


1,200,000 


170 


900,000 


15o 


Italy (sep. ofSi.) 


117,000 


17,000,000 


179 






Great Brit, and 












Ireland 


118,130 


21,500,000 


182 


44,000,000 


2 00 


Netherlands 


24,400 


5,300,000 


214 


8,000,000 


I 10 


Austrian Sicily 


18,260 


4,000,000 


219 


2,000,000 


10 


lonion islands re- 












public 


1,000 


230,000 


230 


100,000 


89 


En. (from Wa.) 


68,335 


11,600,000 


232 


36,000,000 


3 20 


Ireland 


3,036 


7,000,000 


237 


4,000,000 


110 


Holland 


2,100 


760,000 


362 






West Flanders 


1,600 


630.000 


420 






East Flanders 


1,100 


610,000 


554 


180,000,000 




Eu. collectiyely 


200,000,000 


58 I 


JO 18 



15 

J summary vieiv of the United States, in regard to tJi^eir 
natural' advantages for agriculture, manufactured 
and commerce, 

Maine, in common with the other New England 
states, has not tliose advantages in respect to agricul- 
ture enjoyed by the other sections of the Union: the 
climate is cold, and the soil less productive, though in 
many parts calculated to rear great numbers of neat 
stock and horses. Chief advantages are commercial and 
manufacturing. It possesses a large extent of sea coast, 
many fine harbours, and great resources in lumber; some 
navigable rivers, and a great command of water povver. 

JSTew Hampshire in soil and climate, nearly similar 
to the southern part of Maine, but is destitute of the 
commercial facilities enjoyed by that state. Chief ad- 
vantages are agricultural and manufacturing; it abounds 
in water power, and possesses the materials of good 
roads; and by the Merrimack and the Middlesex canal, 
the western part has considerable trade with Boston. 
But in general, the agricultural interest labours under 

the disadvantage of an expensive, and tedious land 

transportation. 

Vermont in surface is mountainous, but the soil in 
many places is fertile, and is well calculated for rearing 
great numbers of neat stock, horses and sheep, particu- 
larly the latter. This state, like New Hampshire, la- 
bours under the want of facilities of internal communi- 
cation; but the western section enjoys the advantage of 
the New York canal, to a good market. Chief advanta- 
ges are agricultural an»i manufacturing: and possesses 
an abundant water power for manufacturing purposes. 

Massachusetts in regard to agriculture, does not pos- 
sess advantages equal to those enjoyed by the states far- 
ther south. Its soil is less fertile, and cultivated at 
greater expense. When well improved, however, it is 
highly productive in pasturage, vegetables, fruit, hops, 
and some other articles; and there is but a small portion 
of this state that is (with the exception of Barnstable 
county) absolutely unproductive. In regard to manufac- 
tures, it possesses great and important advantages in its 
great extent of water power, abundance of fuel, its mi- 
nerals and its materials of manufactures. As regards in- 
ternal communication, it possesses the materials of good 



JG Summary view of the United States. 

i'oai-is, and canals in abundance; and by means of the 
Middlesex canal, enjoys an extensive trade with the 
interior of New Hampshire. As regards foreign com- 
merce, and the fisheries, it possesses advantages much su- 
perior to most of the other states; a large extent of sea 
coast, valuable harbours and bays. 

Jihode Island, in regard to agriculture, has advantages 
nearly similar to those of Massachusetts; as the soil of- 
the state in general, is thin and poor, with the exception 
of the islands in Narraghansett bay, which have soils 
highly productive in grass, vegetables, and fruit. And 
the climate of this section of the state, is more pleasant 
than in any other part of New England. In regard to 
mamifacticres, the state possesses great advantages in 
the numerous and valuable water-falls, wliich the en- 
terprise and industry of her citizens have not failed to 
improve. 

In regard to foreign co?/imerce, she possesses great 
advantages, being penetrated by Narraghansett bay for 
thirty miles inland; and the liarbour of Newport is very 
capacious, and among the best in tlie United States. In 
regard to interior communication, the state is on a par 
with Massachusetts. 

Connecticut, as respects agriculture, has advantages 
rather superior to liliode Island; the soil is thin, but 
well improved. As to manufactures, possesses impor- 
tant advantages; and, probably, in this respect, is on a 
par with most of the other New England states. In re- 
gard to foi'eign commerce, has many good harbours, and 
the Connecticut river affords a navigation to a consid- 
erable distance. The state abounds with materials ot 
good roads in abundance. 

JVew York, in respect to agriculture, possesses ad- 
vantages superior to those enjoyed by the New England 
states; as the soil is more productive, and can be im- 
proved at less expense and labour. The state, however, 
presents a considerable diversity of soil and climate. 
Its aspect, on the whole, is either hilly or mou^ntainous. 
In regard to manufactures, it has important advantages; 
abounds in numerous water privileges, and possesses 
iron, and othet* raw materials. In regard to facilities of 
internal communication, it possesses superior advanta- 
ges; first, by the Hudson river, which aftbrds an inter 



Summary view of the United States. 17 

nal navigation for 160 miles; second, by the Champlaili 
canal, with lake Ontario; third, by the Erie canal, which 
affords an internal communication with the western re- 
o-ions, byway of lake Erie. The extent of country which 
is thus opened to the commerce of the Hudson, by means 
of these canals, is about* 166,160 square miles. In regard 
to foreign commerce, this state possesses superior advan- 
tages, as the harbour of New York is spacious, and 
affords a direct outlet to tlie ocean. Its foreign com- 
merce and tonnage, exceed those of any other state in 
the Union. 

J\*ew Jersey, on the whole, has advantages in regard 
to fertility of soil inferior to New York. Nearly one-half 
of the state is occupied by the sea-sand alluvion, which 
is thin and sandy. In some parts, however, it is generally 
arable, and productive in grain, fruit, and pasturage. It 
possesses great diversity of climate, as the level, sandy 
plains in the south, approximate to the climate of south 
Virginia; while Sussex county has climate nearly similar 
to New Hampshire and Vermont.! As to manufactures, 
it possesses an extensive water power, and great abun- 
dance of iron ore. In regard to foreign commerce, its ad- 
vantages are inconsiderable, as, although it has an exten- 
sive sea coast, it does not possess any spacious harbours 
of any note. One important advantage enjoyed by the 
agricultural interest in this state, is the direct access to 
markets of New York and Philadelphia. 

Pennsylvania has a great diversity of soil and aspect. 
In regard to agriculture, it possesses important advan- 
tages, for the soil although in many places not very fer- 
tile, and hard to be improved, yet is highly productive 
when well cultivated. Wheat, and most other grain, are 
raised in great perfection here; and the soil is well 
adapted to fruit in general, and the culture of the grape 
vine. Washington county in the S. W. section of the 
state, is well fitted for grazing sheep. In regard to 
manufactures, she possesses important advantages; in 
mineral wealth, it stands before any other section of the 
United States. The immense stores of mineral coal, 
and iron ore existing in almost every section of the 
state, in connection with a great command of water 

* Darby's Gazetteer, f Darby's Gezetteer. •; Darby's Gazetteer, 
c 3 



18 Summary vi^w of the United States. 

power, afford great facilities for the prosecution of man 
ufactures on an extensive scale. In regard to interna! 
commerce, the state possesses great advantages. It gen- 
crally abounds with the materials of good roads, rail- 
ways, and canals: its rivers afford great facilities for a 
descending trade, and some of them are capable of being 
navigable Tor steam boats. By means of the Alleghany 
and Ohio rivers, it has a communication with New Or- 
leans: by the Susquehanna with Baltimore; and by the 
Schuylkill navigation with Philadelphia. As regards 
foreign commerce, it has not the advantages enjoyed by 
New York, as tlie port of Phiadelphia is often difficult 
of access from the sea; its foreign commerce, however. 
is considerable and important. 

Ddaware, in regard to agriculture, has important ad- 
vantages. The soil, in many parts of the state, is thin 
and poor; but in other sections, it is highly productive 
in wheat, and in some parts is well fitted for grazing. 
tn regard to manufactures, it affords important advan- 
tages in its numerous and valuable water privileges. Its 
commercial advantages are but small. 

Maryland, in regard to agriculture, has some impor- 
tant advantages. The soil, in great part, is thin and 
sandy, but, in man}' instances, is productive in wheat 
and tobacco of a superior quality, in fruit, and is adapt- 
ed to the culture of the grape vine. But the soil is great- 
ly impoverished from the impolitic and excessive cul- 
ture of tobacco. In regard to manufactures, it possesses 
superior advantages, as it abounds in iron ore and othei 
raw materials, and has valuable water privileges. With- 
in a circuit of 20 miles from Baltimore, it is estimated, 
that a v.'ater-power might be had sufficient to keep in 
operation 1,600,000 spindles; and a large capital i« 
already invested in manufactures in the vicinity of thai 
place. 'in regard to internal comraunication, it possesses 
tiie materials of good roads and railways, and probably 
of canals in plent}-. By means of the Cumberland road. 
It enjoys a valuable and important trade with the west- 
ern states. By the numerous streams in some parts of 
the state, great facilities are afforded to tlie agricultur 
ist in a cheap conveyance of his produce to a good mar- 
ket. It enjoys, by means of the port of Baltimore, im- 
portant advantages for foreign commerce. 



Summary view of the United States, 19 

Virginia, as regards agriculture, enjoys importani 
advantages. Its variety of soil and cliniate, afford a 
more extended field for the enterprise of the agricultur- 
ist, than is to be found in most other states. The soil, 
although in many instances impoverished by an impoli- 
tic system of cultivation, is productive in wheat, tobacca, 
and even cotton in some sections. The western coun- 
ties are in general well adapted to the culture of grain^ 
the rearing of stock, horses, and sheep. In regard to 
manufactures, it possesses important advantages, as it 
abounds in coal, lead, and other raw materials, and pos- 
sesses a great command of water pov/er. In the vicinity 
of Richmond, on James river, are 100 sites for manufac- 
tures of different kinds, each affording an ample supply 
of water at all seasons;* and in many other section? 
valuable water privileges may be had. In regard to 
internal communication, the state enjoys important ad- 
vantages. The materials of roads and canals are gener- 
ally to be had; and by means of the James, Rappahan- 
nock, and other rivers, it enjoys great facilities for an 
important trade with Kentucky and Tennessee, and 
with its own interior sections. In regard (o foreign com- 
merce, its advantages are considerable, and Norfolk has 
one of the best harbours in the United States. 

JVorth Carolina, in respect to agriculture, does not 
possess advantages, in general, equal to those of the 
other states, as the soil is generally thin and poor, with 
some exceptions. It is productive, however, in wheat, 
cotton, tobacco, and some indigo. The western sections 
of the state are well calculated for stock, and hogs. 
Many tracts of land, having a soil highly productive, 
now lie waste and unimproved.t Jis regards manufac- 
tures, in some sections are valuable water falls for man- 
ufactures. Gold has been found in this state. In regard 
to interior communications, the inhabitants labour under 
the want of good roads and bridges. As regards com- 
merce, its advantages are inconsiderable, as by reason 
of the numerous sand bars on the beds of the rivers, the 
sea coast of this state is the least favourable to naviga- 
tion of any of the maritime states of the United States. 

* Darby, j Message of Gov. Burton, in 1326. 



:30 Summary view of the United States. 

Its chief advantages are those of the forest, lumber 
pitch, tar, and some grain. 

South Carolina, in regard to agriculture, possesses 
important advantages; the soil, though diversified, pro- 
duces corn, wheat, rice, cotton, and some indigo; and 
the state, in proportion to its extent of surface, is a 
very productive region. In 1818, its exports placed it in 
tlie third rank of agricultural value. The hilly and 
mountainous regions of this state, are regarded as being 
well adapted to the culture of the vine, the olive, silk, 
and many other articles not at present cultivated. As 
regards manufactures, it does not possess great advan- 
tages, though some iron works are carried on in the in- 
terior of the state. In regard to interior communication, 
it possesses important natural advantages, which, how- 
ever, (with some exceptions) have not been improved; 
and the interior of the state labours under the want of 
good roads, and other facilities of communication. In 
regard to foreign commerce, it does not possess impor- 
tant advantages, as its rivers are navigable to a small 
distance only, and there are but few good harbours. 

Georgia, in regard to agriculture, possesses impor* 
tant advantages. Of all the states in the Union, it pre- 
sents the greatest diversity of soil and climate, and ol 
vegetable production indigenous and exotic. Its moun- 
tainous northern extremity, is well adapted to wheat, 
and grain in general; wliile its southern extremity, on- 
the branches of the St. Mary's and Alatamahah, have a 
climate sufficiently mild for the growth, and even profit- 
able culture of the sugar-cane, orange, olive, date, and 
lemon tree. Between these extremes, every valuable ve- 
getable substance produced in the United States, can be 
brought to perfection. Oranges, and the sugar-cane, is 
cultivated along its entire sea- board. In regard to manu- 
factures, this state has but few advantages, and has not 
made great advances in this branch of national industry. 
In regard to interior trade in common with the other 
states, it labours under the want of interior facilities of 
communication. Its advantages for foreign commerce are 
not important, and it has no harbours of consequence. 

Ohio, in regard to agriculture, enjoys important ad- 
vantages. In aspect, it may be classed under three equal 
sections of about 13,300 square miles each, of hilly, val- 



Summary vieu^ of the United States. 21 

ley, and level land, of almost equal fertility. Its area 
may be estimated at 40,000 square miles, or about 25, 
000,000 acres, of which but a small part is not suscep- 
tible of cultivation. There are many tracts of rich inter- 
vals, which will produce 100 bushe.ls of corn, and 40 
bushels of wheat to the acre; and the grain annually 
raised in the state, is estimated at about 50,000,000^- 
bushels. Wheat, corn, barley, hemp, flax, fine tobacco, 
and fruit in general grow luxuriantly, and constitute the 
principal agricultural products of the state. The soil and 
climate are well adapted to the vine, mulberry, and the 
rearing of horses, stock and sheep. In regard to manu- 
factures, it also possesses important advantages, as it 
has a considerable command of water power, particular- 
ly at Zanesville; and abounds in coal, iron, and other 
raw materials. Of salt, it is estimated that about 500,000 
bushels are made annually within the state. In Musk- 
ingum county alone, there are annually produced about 
jl,300 tons of metal, and 200 tons of bar iron. Gypsum 
abounds in Sandusky bay, and is of a superior quality,! 
In regard to interior commerce, it enjoys great advanta- 
ges: it has an extent of 1,700 miles of navigable water 
communication: by the lakes it enjoys a communicatiou 
with Detroit and Montreal; by the Erie canal "with New 
York; by Pittsburg with Philadelphia; by the Cumber- 
land road with Baltimore; and by the Ohio and Missis- 
sijjpi with New Orleans. 

Indiana possesses a great variety of soil, of which a 
considerable proportion is fertile and productive. In 
regard to its productions, and natural advantages for 
agricultural pursuits, it is nearly on a par with Ohio, 
And the vine is here cultivated with success. It posses- 
ses considerable advantages for interior trade; it is well 
Avatered by navigable rivers and streams. 

Illinois is the fourth state of the United States in ex- 
tent.of territory, and the first in fertility of soil. From 
its extent, embracing five deg. of latitude north and 
south, it must possess a great diversity of climate. In 
surface it is rolling in its southern section, and level in 
its eastern a»ul northern extremities. In point of soil, 
Illinois admits a similar classification with Ohio and In- 

*Viewof Ciucinattijin 1826. t Niles, 



22 Summary view of the United States. 

diana. The state possesses considerable advantages foi 
an interior trade with New York, by the lakes and the 
Erie canal, and with New Orleans by the Mississippi. 
Missouri possesses a great variety of soil, but a con- 
siderable part is poor and thin. Grain, tobacco, and cot- 
ton are produced; the latter, however, chiefly for domes- 
tic use. The usual crop of potatoes in some parts of the 
state, is from 300 to 500 bushels per acre.* The state 
possesses commercial advantages superior to most of 
the western states. Two large navigable rivers penetrate 
her territory, aftbrding an extent of water carriage for 
the transportation of its produce, not enjoyed by any 
other state. These two great channels of communication 
can be navigable for steamboats' at all seasons of the 
year, (excepting a few weeks). When other rivers are 
either obstructed by ice, or so low that they cannot be 
navigated, the Missouri and Mississippi are generally 
free from obstructions, which puts it in the power of the 
Missouri farmer to obtain tlie highest price for his pro- 
duce, by anticipating those from the other states in the 
New Orleans market. In regard to mineral riches its 
advantages are great. In addition to the apparently in- 
exhaustible stores of lead ore, some of the most abun- 
dant iron mines in the world, are found on the Mis- 
souri river, and in the interior of thj? state. The iron 
mountains produce iron ore of a quality far superior to 
any that can be obtained, and is found to possess the 
properties of steel.t The one constitutes the entire 
southern extremity of a lofty ridge, elevated 500 or 600 
feet above the plain.J Water power to work this mass 
abounds in all directions. 

_ Jirkansas, from its great extent, has a great variety of 
soil and aspect. A considerable part, however, is highly 
productive in corn, rice, tobacco, and cotton: of the latter 
500 lbs. to the acre have been produced in some sec- 
tions. It is fitted for rearing great numbers of horses, 
stock, and hogs. The vine, mulberry, madder, peccoon, 
and other valuable roots can be cultivated. In regard to 
manufactures, it has important advantages: the moun- 
tains contain nitre, alum, salt, vitriol, lead, copper, iron, 
silver, limestone, fuller's earth, chrystal, good clay foi 

■St Louis Enquirer, f St Louis Enquirer, f Darby's Gazetteer 



Summary view of the United States. 23 

delf ware, and sand for glass ware.* It has a great com- 
mand of water power in its numerous streams. By 
means of its position, it enjoys groat and important fa- 
cilities of internal commerce with Mexico and with 
New Orleans. 

Kentucky presents considerable diversity of soil and 
climate, and the hilly regions predominate over mucli 
the larger portion of the state. The hills generally are 
fertile to their summits. In regard to agriculture it pos- 
sesses important advantages: there is a considerable di- 
versity of soil, but some tracts are very fertile. The re- 
gion about Lexington is among the most fertile and 
pleasant in the United States. The soil is well adapted 
to wheat, corn, hemp, and tobacco, the rearing of horseSj 
stock, and hogs. In regard to manufactures, some pro- 
gress has been made in iron, cordage, cotton-bagging, 
and a few other articles. Its progress, however, in na- 
tional industr}^ and population has been much impeded 
by the prevalence of slavery, which blights all industry 
and enterprise, and by a long continued course of bad 
policy. 

Tennessee, in respect to agriculture, possesses impor- 
tant advantages in the great variety of soil and climate 
which it enjoys. Although its difference of latitude is 
only one and a half degrees, yet few states present on 
an equal surface, a more marked change of climate, and 
vegetable production than does Tennessee. And in their 
general physiognomy, a marked difference exists be- 
tween East and West Tennessee: the former is a com- 
parative alpine region: the latter is for the most part a 
level plain. The soil in the eastern part is generally thin 
and poor, with the exception of some valleys, which pos- 
sess very rich soil. This state is productive in wheat, 
corn, cotton, hemp, and large numbers of stock and 
horses are raised for the eastern markets. In regard to 
^manufactures it possesses important advantages, as it 
abounds in iron, coal, and water power. As regards in- 
terior commerce in has considerable facilities; it is 
penetrated by two large navigable streams, which afford 
a communication with New Orleans; and it has a con- 
siderable trade with Baltimore and Philadelphia. 

*Port-Folio for 1817. 



'24 Summary view of the United States. 

Louisiana contains a great diversity of soil, from the 
most sterile to the most productive. It consists of five 
very distinct varieties; river alluvion, pine forest, prai- 
rie, inundated river land, and sea marshes. Of these, the 
most extensive is pine forest, but the most valuable, al- 
luvion. It is estimated that nearly one-fifth of the whole 
state is not susceptible of cultivation, being continually 
liable to inundation. The advantages of Louisiana arc 
chiefly agricultural. Its principal staples are cotton, 
rice, and sugar; and in the more elevated parts, large 
herds of neat stock are reared. The relative sugar, rice, 
and cotton lands, are estimated at 250,000 for sugar, 
250,000 for rice, and 2,500,000 for cotton. Corn is 
raised in abundance, but the soil is not suited to wheat, 
nor the fruits of the north. The state enjoys considera- 
ble advantages for interior trade in the number of its 
navigable streams, but it has not the materials of good 
roads in plenty. 

Mississippi has in general a fertile soil, and its ad- 
vantages are chiefly agricultural. Indigo, tobacco, and 
cotton have been cultivated as staples; but the latter 
has almost entirely superceded the two former. Corn 
and oats are also cultivated as staples, but the culture 
of wheat is seldom attempted. Of the cultivated fruits, 
the principal are the apple, peach, and fig. One great 
disadvantage, to which the cultivator in this state is lia- 
ble, is the variability of the climate. Frequent frosts 
occur, which often destroy the cotton, indigo, and to- 
bacco, as early as the first week in October, while, pei- 
iiaps, in the next season, the flowers of the same vegeta- 
ble will be seen blooming in December, and even in 
January. 

Jilahama is greatly varied in soil and aspect. It is 
productive in maize, which is cultivated in all parts of 
the state, and small grain in the hilly and northern sec- 
tions. Cotton and tobacco are cultivated. The climate 
is temperate, and the air salubrious, being exempt from 
the great extremes of heat and cold, often experienced 
in the north during the summer season. The apple, 
pear, peach, and other northern fruits, are cultivated to 
advantage; the orange, the lemon, the vine and mulber- 
ry, the cotton and sugar cane also flourish The state i? 



Summary view of South ^imerica. £5 

:\dapted to the manufacture of salt of a superior quality. 
It enjoys great facilities of interior communication. 

Florida has great natural advantages as to soil and. 
climate; being almost surrounded by the ocean, it has a 
more temperate and pleasant air than any other part ot 
the United States. It produces cotton, coin, rice, sugar, 
coffee, fine tobacco, wine, mulberry, oil, and many fruits 
of both the torrid and temperate zones. It possesses ad- 
vantages for cultivating the sugar cane, not enjoyed by 
Louisiana or Georgia; the cane may lie longer on the 
ground, for two or three months after being cut, without 
injury, whereas, in Jamaica it cannot lie longer than 
twelve days. It is calculated that Florida possesses about 
25,000,000 acres. For the coffee region, 7,000,000; for 
the sugar region, 8,000,000; for the coffee and grain, 
9,000,000. 

Arkansas has great advantages of soil and climate, 
calculated*to produce corn, cotton, tobacco, raise stock, 
horses, and hogs; by means of its position, has great 
facilities for carrying on an internal trade with Mexi- 
co, &c. 

Territory of Oregon, on the Pacific, has a climate 
milder, and more pleasant than those in the same lati- 
tude, east of the Rocky mountains. It is watered by two 
or three large, navigable rivers, and abounds in abun- 
dance of valuable furs and skins. 

Jiexican republic contains a great diversity of soil, 
and climate, from its tropical position, combined with 
tiie great elevation of its mountains. In regard to fer 
tility <)f soil, abundance and variety of productions, it 
possesses advantages superior to the United States. It 
produces cotton, tobacco, sugar, and cocoa, tropical, and 
tiemperate fruits; while the flour of the table lands rivals 
that of the United States in the n)arketof Havannah.' 
In mineral wealth, possesses both the precious and many 
of the useful metals. In facilities, however, for man- 
ufactures, interior and foreign commerce, it does 
jiot possess advantages equal to those enjoyed by thu 
United States. 

It is deficient in interior facilities of comraunic-atiou. 

The interior and transport commerce is conveyed on 

mules of burdenr It has but few harbonrs favourable t^ 

* Humbolt's New Spain. 

D 



'IG Sanimary view of South Jimerica. 

foreign commerce. It labours under the evils of long 
continued misrule and tyranny, a bigoted religion, and 
a general want of information among its inhabitants. 

Peru enjoys a fine climate, a rich soil, and a great 
capacity and variety of productions. The staple com- 
modities of this region embrace nearly all that is valua» 
ble in the vegetable and mineral kingdom. For silver it 
exceeds any other region. As regards facilities of inte- 
rior communication, it is extremely deficient, and, with 
the exception of Lima, has no good harbours. Like the 
rest of Spanish America, it labours under the evils of 
bigotry, want of information, and extreme laxity of mo- 
rals among its inhabitants. 

Columbia extends from latitude 10° 2' north, to lati- 
tude 6*^ south, and includes on the Pacific 1,700 miles 
of sea coast; 1,700 on tlie Carribean sea; and 300 miles 
on the Atlantic ocean; giving an aggregate navigable 
ocean border of 3,700 miles; the whole land frontier 
exceeds 2,400 miles, making in all 6,100 miles. Within 
this wide extent is embraced every variety of soil, from 
the frozen summits of Chimborazo, Coyambeurue, and 
Gotopaxi, to the almost illimitable plains ofCassinare, 
and the alluvial delta of the Oronoco. The ocean lim- 
its present a front to the commerce of Asia, one to the 
United States and Mexico, and one to Europe and Af- 
rica. In the interior, the Oronoco and Amazon render 
these extensive regions accessible at almost every point 
by water. 

Buenos »iyres is in genera] an open and flat region,, 
with a soil of exubtirant fertility, and situated between 
33° 40' of south latitude; produces in abundance the 
grains and fruits of a temperate climate. Agriculture is 
much neglected for pastural pursuits. 

Brazil is of great extent, embracing 39° of latitude, 
and presenting a great variety of soil and climate, and 
capable of producing every article that can administer 
to the wants, necessities, and luxuries of man. In its as- 
pect it has some mountains, but in general it is level. 
The Amazon, with its numerous branches, waters and 
fertilizei these extensive regions, presenting the greatest 
extent of fertile land ever united in one body. In this 
region, wheat, cotton, tobacco, coffee, and fruit, may be 
produced in plenty. 



Summary view of the West Indies. %7 

Chili enjoys a very fine climate and productive soil: 
produces wheat, and other grains, in great luxuriance, 
wine, oil, and fruit, labours under a want of interioi 
communication. 

Guiana, including Demarara and Surinam, is a very 
fertile region, producing cotton, sugar, coftet,, indigo,, 
and tropical fruit; its plain feeds great numbers of cat- 
tle, which may be reared at very little expense. The cli- 
mate is unhealthy. 

%iestion. Where are the West India islands situa- 
ted? — Answer. On the eastern side of the American 
continent, between North and Soutli America. 

Which are the extreme islands towards the several 
points of the compass? — Trinidad is the most southern: 
Barbadoes the most eastern; Cuba the n^ost western: 
and the Bahama islands the most northern. 

How are the West India islands commonly divided': 
— Into Great Antilles, Little Antilles, Bahamas and 
Carribee islands. 

1. The Great Antilles are th<- four largest islands — 
Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. 

2. The Little Jintilles are Curracoa, B.uen Aire, and 
some others, near the coast of South America. 

3. The Bahamas are those islands north of Cuba and 
Hispaniola. These islands are said to be about 500 in 
number, of which not m.ore than 12 are of any consid 
erable extent, and are nearly all destitute of inhabitants. 

4. The Carribean islands are Trinidad, and all riorth 
of it, till you come to Porto Rico. 

5. The Virgin islands are included among the Car- 
ribean islands. 

6. The Bermuda islands are generally spoken of in 
connexion with the W^est Indies. They are 600 miles 
east of Carolina, and are about 300 in number, with a 
jiopulation of 10,000. 

How are the Carribee islands divided} — Into hee 
ward and Windward. 



■■la 



View of the West Indies. 



Tabular Vieiv of the principal West India Islands. 
Names. Belonging to. Sq. ni. Pop. Chief Towns. Sq. no. 



3 ( Bahama 1 

3 < Providence V Great Brit. 

^ (Abaco,&c. ) 



5,500 15,000 Nassau. 



I St. Domin' i independent 28,000 650,000 Cape Henry 

; or tiayu i 

) J 

I Cuba Spain 50,000 620,000 Havannaii 

} Jamaica Britain 6,400 360,000 Kingston 

LPorto Rico* Spain 4,000 130,000 St. Juan 

Leeward Islands. 



28 

12 

56 
33 



^< 



Guadalopef 


France 


675 


116,000 Basse Terrej; 


170 


Anligua^ 


Britain 


93 


36,000 St Johns 


386 


St. Croixll 


Denmark 


100 


31 000 Christianstadt 


310 


St. Chrislprs 


Britain 


70 


28,000 Basse Terre 


400 


Doniiuica 


do. 




26,000 Roseaull 




St. Eustatia 


Netherlands 


22 


20.000 The Bay 


99 


Mariegalante France 


90 


12,000 Basse Terre 


133 


Monlserat 


Britain 


73 


11,000 Plymoutb 


141 


Tortola 


do. 


90 


11,000 Road Harbour 


120 


Nivis 


do. 


20 


10 000 Charlestown 


500 


St. Barlhol. 


Sweden 


60 


3,000 Gustavia 


133 


Virgin Gorda 


I Britain 


80 


8,000 


100 


St. Martin 


Netherlands 


90 


6,000 


66 


St. Thomas 


Denmark 


40 


5,000 


125 


Anguilla 


Britain 


30 


800 


26 




Windw 


ard Islands. 




Martinique* 


* France 


' 370 


95,000 St. Pierreit 


256 


Barbadoes 


Britain 


166 


93,000 Bridgetown 


560 


Grenada 


do. 


110 


31,000 St. Georg-e 


280 


Trinidad 


do. 


1,700 


25,000 Port of Spain 


14 


St. Vincent 


do. 


130 


23.000 Kingston 


172 


St. Lucia 


do. 


225 


16,000 Carenage 


11 


Tobago 


do. 


140 


16,000 Srarborough 


110 


Margaritta 


Columbia 


350 


14,000 Ascension 


40 


CurracoaJJ 


Netherlands 


600 


8,500 Williamstadt 


1« 



* Porto Re-ko. f Gaud-a-loop. | Bass-Tare. § An-te-ga. || San-ta- 
Cruz. IT Ro-so. ** Mar-tee-neek. ft Saint-Pe-aer. Jt Cur-a-so. 

What is the climate of the West Indies?— In sum- 
mer the climate is hot and unhealthy, especially to 
atrangei-s; but in winter the temperature is delightful. 



View of the West Indies. 29 

Hurricanes occur in autumn, which sometimes cause 
the greatest destruction. Earthquakes and violent thun- 
der and lightning are also common. 

What is the soi/? — It is in general very fertile. 

Which are the principal productions? — Sugar, rum 
and molasses. 

The other productions are cotton, indigo, coffee, co- 
coa, ginger, &c. Of fruits, the principal are oranges, 
lemons, limes, pine apples, and figs. 

Which are some of the principal towns in these is- 
lands? — Havannah is the chief town of Cuba — Kingston 
of Jamaica— *S^ Juan of Porto Rico; (Por-to-Reko) — 
St. Pierre (Saint-Pe aer) of Martinique, (Mar-te-neek) 
— Cape Henry, St. Domingo and Port au Prince of St 
Domingo. 

1. Havannah, 4th class, is the largest town in the 
West Indies. It is situated on the northern coast ot 
Cuba. It has a harbour capable of commodiously con- 
taining 1000 ships. It is a strongly fortified place. Its 
commerce is immense. 

2. Kingston, 5th class, is the chief towti of Jamaica. 
and indeed of the British West Indies. It has an excel- 
lent harbour and an extensive commerce. 

5. St. Pierre, 5th class, in Martinique, is the princi- 
pal town of the French West Indies, and enjoys an ex- 
tensive commerce. 

What is the popuiaiion of all the West India Islands? 
— About 2,400,000; three-fourtlis of whom are blacks, 
and chiefly slaves. 

What is the character of the inhabitants? — It is very 
various. The white inhabitants of the British West In- 
dia Islands, are said to be hospitable, and generous, but 
high minded and contentious; the Creoles are indolent, 
and fond of pleasure, but generous, high minded and 
frank. 



;^0 Folitical Institutions. 



Tahilar View of the United States. 

United States. Sq. m. Pop. Pop. to Rep. Seri 

sq. nil. 

Maine 35,000 298,000 8 7 2 

New Hampshire 8,030 244,156 30 6 2 

Vermont 8,278 235,764 28 5 2 

Massachusetts 6,853 523,498 76 13 2 

Connecticut 4,750 275,248 58 6 2 

Rhode Island 1,580 83,059 52 2 39 2 12 

New York 46,000 1,372,812 SO r34 2 

New Jersey 6,851 277,575 40 6 2 

Pennsylvania 43,950 1,049,451 24 26 2 

Delaware 2,120 72,749 34 1 2 

Maryland 1,400 407,000 29 9 76 2 10 

Virginia 63,000 1,065,304 17 22 2 

N. Carolina 48,000 638,829 13 13 2 

S. Carolina 24,000 502,758 20 9 2 

Georgia 68,000 340,989 6 7 61 2 8 

Ohio 38,260 581,434 14 14 2 

Indiana 34,000 147,178 4 3 2 

Illinois 58,900 55,211 1 2 

Missouri 62,810 66,586 1 1 2 

Arkansaw 100,000 14,273 

Kentucky 37,680 564,317 15 12 2 

Tennessee 40,000 422,813 10 9 2 

Louisiana 48,220 153,407 3 3 2 

Mississippi 45,760 75,448 1 1 2 

Alabama 51,770 143,000 3 3 2 

Florida 54,000 10,000 

Michigan 134,000 10,000 
West. Territory 960,000 47 IS 

2,063,369 9,663,313 213 48 

Are the political institutions, the virtue, industry., 
intelligence, and enterprise of the people of ^reat im- 
portance in regard to national prosperity and happiness? 
. — These things are of primary importance in regard to 
national prosperity and power. 

What examples of this truth can be here presented: 
— The case of Great Britain and the United States, 
clearly e.thibit the great influence wliich is produced by 
these circumstances. We have seen that Great Britain 
and France are both before the other nations of Europe, 
n\ regard to the general prosperity, the circumstances, 
and the relative degree of comfort enjoyed by the great 



Form of Government. 31 

mass of the people. Great Britain, as will be seen iiere- 
after, doubles her population in about 50 or 60 years.; 
France in 100 or 120 years; and the rest of Europe in a 
much longer period. While the United States in gene- 
ral have doubled their population in about 23 years. 
And these three nations are considerably before the 
other European nations in all these circumstances, 
which are undoubted, and clear marks of national wel- 
fare and prosperity, as the comfortable circumstances 
of the people, the general ability to obtain the necessa- 
ries and comforts of life without excessive and severe 
toil and labour, the general and gradual improvement 
in the arts and sciences, in agriculture, manufactures, 
and commerce. 

Has the form of government great influence as re- 
gards these objects? — It undoubtedly has a great and 
important effect: this is clearly proved by the example 
of the United States, Great Britain, Holland, and 
Switzerland, besides many of the smaller states of Ita- 
ly, Florence, Tuscany, and Flanders. The respective 
governments of these nations are, in political princi- 
ple, more popular than those of Spain, of Poland, or 
Russia, in the great mass of the people; hence, a more 
general spirit of liberty and freedom prevails, greater 
intelligence, virtue, and a superior degree of moral en- 
ergy, than can be found to exist among the other na- 
tions of Europe. ^ 

What is the case of Holland and Switzerland? — In re- 
gard to the former, we see a people small in numbers, 
and possessed of a territory small in extent, contending 
against natural difficulties and obstacles, which to some 
others posssesed of less industry and perseverence, 
would have been insurmountable, and, by patient toil 
and labour, overcoming the element of the ocean, and 
rendering their country fit for habitation. At one period, 
this people had the control of the whole carrying trade 
of Europe, and were the first naval power in Europe. 
At this day it sustains a population of S6Q to each 
square mile. In regard to the latter, the Swiss dwelling 
on their lofty and rough mountains, have preserved 
their liberties and freedom, while the other nations of 
Europe lost theirs. Their industry and labour enabled 
them to obtain a comfortable subsistence from a territo 



32 Virtue, intelligence, Sec, 

ij lofty and mountainous, and in soil far inferior to the 
average of Europe. 

What examples of the favourable effect of virtue, in- 
telligence, and industry, on the prosperity of a nation 
can be exhibited?— The case of Greece and Rome exhi- 
bit the cares of a nation povv^erful and prosperous, while 
they preserved their virtues, their temperance, unsul- 
lied by luxury. And of a people debased and degraded 
under a despotic government, and, finally a prey to a 
horde of barbarians, by whom their empire was annihi- 
lated. Rome under the Republic, was very different 
from Rome under the Emperors. The example of every 
modern empire still exhibits these same truths, that a 
nation is powerful and prosperous, in proportion to the 
general spirit of freedom, virtue, and industry, prevailing 
among the people; and on the other hand degraded and 
debased, in proportion to the indifference of the people 
to the preservation of its freedom and liberties, habits of 
luxury, pride, and extravagance, predominating over vir- 
tue and industry. 

To what causes may the general prosperity of the Uni- 
ted States be imputed.? — In some degree to its natural 
advantages of soil, climate, extensive sea-board, naviga- 
ble rivers, and other facilities of interior communication, 
but principally to the popular spirit of its political insti- 
tutions, the general spirit of freedom, intelligence, indus- 
try, and virtue prevailing among the people. 

To what causes may we impute the superior degree ol 
national prosperity and happiness now enjoyed by the 
United States, over Mexico and South America? — 
Chietly to tlie same general causes, and moral energy of 
its population: for in natural advantages of climate, fer- 
tility of soil, the abundance and the variety of its pro- 
ductions, these nations are superior to the United 
States. 

Whence then arises this great difference between the 
condition of the people in these regions, and in the Uni- 
ted States? — The circumstances under which the settle- 
ment of both countries commenced, the character and 
views of the first colonists, the subsequent character of 
its rulers and people, and the general system of policy 
pursued in each region. 
What were the circumstances under which the first 



Colonization of South America. 33 

settlement and colonization of the United States com- 
menced, and what were the views and character of its 
first settlers? — The original settlers of New England and 
Virginia, were a class ot men, who left their homes and 
a comfortable residence in Great Britain, for the express 
object of enjoying a greater degree of freedom and reli- 
gious privileges in the New World. Hence they were 
willing to encounter the dangers of the ocean at a very 
inclement season of the year, and to commence a settle- 
ment in a region possessing a cold climate and indiffer- 
ent soil, and inhabited by a race of heathen barbarians, 
fierce and savage in their disposition, and depending on 
bunting and war for subsistence, against whom they 
had to contend for some years for their lives. The other 
states were first colonized by men, also, whose princi- 
ples, objects, and views, were the more perfect enjoy- 
ment of religion, and political freedom; and the policy 
subsequently pursued, has been such, as has been calcu- 
lated to promote, in the interests of the nations, and the 
cause of liberty, freedom and happiness among the peo- 
ple. 

What were the circumstances under which the settle- 
ment and colonization of the Spanish provinces com- 
menced, and what was the character of its settlers? — 
The discovery of the New World took place at a period 
when the attention of the European world was directed 
to the discovery of a more direct, and shorter passage 
to the East Indies, than by the Cape of Good Hope: and 
when a strong and ze^ilous inclination for the discovery 
and colonization of new and remote regions, was found 
to exist in the minds of European monarchs. Hence they 
promoted and encouraged every plan or attempt of their 
own subjects, that might in any manner tend to 
promote their own wishes or views in extending their 
own power and authority. And with this view the king 
of Spain encouraged the plans and enterprises of Cortes, 
and other warlike adventurers and their followers, who 
possessed an invincible and insatiable desire after the 
gold and silver of the New World, and the valuable 
lands of the natives; and who were but little scrupulous 
in the means they used, to promote their own ends 
thereby. In fine, they were generally warlike, avari- 
rious, and superstitious. 



34 Policy of Spain. 

What form of government and political system hai 
been adopted in those regions?^ — These regions, until 
the late revolution, by which they have now become in- 
dependent and sovereign states, were under the con- 
trol and authority of royal viceroys, who were appointed 
by the king, and acted in obedience to his orders: a 
system of policy was adopted, (with some slight excep- 
tions) altogether adapted to augment the power and in- 
terest of the mother country, at the expense of the con- 
quered provinces. Hence many, and important monopo- 
lies and commercial privileges, were granted to the 
merchants of Old Spain in their trade with these regions. 
And many restrictions extremely injurious to the agri- 
culture and manufactures, and the trade of those provin- 
ces, were here in operation for some centuries. 

What instances may be given of this policy? — During 
the period while these regions were in subjection to Old 
Spain, she caused all linen and cotton factories to be 
destroyed, and clandestinely destroyed a most flourish- 
ing growth of silk. About 40 years ago, silk was nearly 
as plentiful in Mexico, as in Asia and Italy; but the 
Mexicans, on rising one morning, found all the mulberry 
trees in the empire cut down, and, of course, the silk 
entirely destroyed. The Cadiz merchants, finding their 
commerce affected, had procured thissecret order of the 
viceroy, who contrived to execute it with the same se- 
crecy. 

Was this system of policy generally adopted through 
all the Spanish territories.^ — It was so; and many other 
instances of it might be given here. 

Was their policy in regard to the diffusion of infor- 
mation and useful knowledge among the great mass of 
the colonists, more liberal and enlightened? — It was not: 
so far from this, their system of policy was calculated, 
and intended to restrain and limit the means of infor- 
mation and knowledge among the colonists. Hence we 
find them in general lazy, idle, ignorant, and extremely 
superstitious. 

What measure of policy is highly important and ne- 
cessary in diffusing and extending among the people a 
strong and active spirit of freedom and liberty, of patri- 
otism, justice, piety, benevolence, wisdom, and virtue? 
—A liberal and efficient system of general education, 



Education. Duty of a citizen of the republic. 35 

which shall be supported at the public expense, and 
which shall afford to the children of both rich and poor, 
such sources of wisdom and knowledge, as shall enable 
them to perform their respective duties as valuable citi- 
zens of the lepublic. 

What course of education will prove most important 
to this end? — Such a system as is followed in the New 
England states and New York: that is, every town con* 
taining a certain number of inhabitants, is obliged, by 
law, to maintain a public school, which shall be kept six 
months in the year; and, perhaps, for twelve months in 
Avhich the elements of reading, writing, English gram- 
mer, arithmetic, and geography, and, sometimes, the 
Latin and Greek languages shall be taught. 

What is the course in the other states? — Chiefly by 
individual subscription, by which the advantages of in- 
struction are much diminished to the people. In Penn- 
sylvania, public provision is made for the education of 
the poor. 

What other branches ought to be taught? — History, 
natural philosophy, botany, astronomy, mensuration, 
civil engineering, the elements of chemistry and agri- 
culture, mineralogy, painting, drawing, architecture^ 
sculpture, and, in short, whatever can have any rela- 
tion to the useful arts. 

Duty of a citizen of the republic. 

What are the duties of a citizen of the United States? 
— To act uprightly and honestly in his dealings with all 
menj to regard and adhere to the principles of virtue, 
piety, justice, and truth; patriotism, humanity, and uni- 
versal benevolence; sobriety, industry, and frugality; 
chastity, moderation, and temperance; and those other 
virtues, which are the ornament of human society, and 
the basis on which the republican constitution is founded. 

What are his duties in regard to the rising genera- 
lion? — To take diligent care, and to endeavour to im- 
press on the minds of children and youth under their 
care, the principles above mentioned, and to use their 
best endeavours to lead the youth into a particular un- 
derstanding of the tendency of the above mentioned 
virtues; to preserve and perfect a republican constitii 



36 (lualijications of Rulers 

tion, and to secure the blessings of liberty, as well as ti.« 
promote their future happiness, and to impress on their 
minds the tendency of the opposite^vices to slavery and 
ruin. 

What are his duties in regard to his rulers? — To pay, 
or render to them, all that regard, respect, and honoui',. 
to which they are entitled from their high* station; to 
give that support and aid to their public acts or meas- 
ures, which the interest of the nation demands, and the 
constitution allows. 

What are his duties in regard to the selection of ru- 
lers? — To use his best endeavours to elevate to public 
stations of authority and trust, men of integrity, hon- 
our, and talents, and who may be well, and perfectly 
qualified to preside over the destinies of the nation, and 
to advance the welfare of the same. 

What are the qualifications required in a governor? — 
A good character, extensive information in political af- 
fairs, particularly in regard to the state over which he 
is to preside, unquestionable talents for active business, 
political experience, a strong mind and correct judg- 
ment, (juiclt capacity of distinguishing the talents and 
dispositions of candidates, and a ready faculty of uni- 
ting discordant interests. 

What are the qualifications for a member of congress? 
— He must have a character above reproach, strong 
mind, sound jiidgment, extensive and minute knowledge 
of the geography, history, and political views and inter- 
ests of each state, and each section in the Union, an able 
talent for debate, and a talent of convincing; and unitino 
opposing interests. 

What are those required in a senator of the United 
States? — He ought to possess the above qualifications in 
an eminent degree, and, more particularly, a greater de- 
gree of political experience. 

What are the qualifications required in a president 
of the United States? — He ought to possess a character 
above reproach, talents of the first rate, a comprehensive 
mind and a sound judgment, wisdom in forming his 
plans, promptitude and energy in their execution, cour 
age utterly regardless of danger when circumstances re- 
quire action, prudence not to be irritated or drawn from 
its purpose, when an advantage was to be gained by de- 



Revenue and Income. 5.7 

lay, stern integrity, not only incorruptible in itself, but 
debarring all under his influence or direction from the 
approach of corruption, the highest sense of honour, a 
devotedness to the cause of his country, that annihilated 
every consideration of personal safety or advantage, a 
talent of uniting discordant opinions, and directing them 
in time of danger to the common defence, an intimate 
and profound knowledge of the diS'erent interests of the 
several states, their i-esources, &c. an intimate acquain- 
tance with the political views and interests of foreign 
nations. 

What ought to be his course in selecting his cabinet? 
— He ought to discard all views of interest, and call 
into notice men of talents and abilities, and political ex- 
perience, without any regard to party, to recommend 
and promote such measures as, in his opinion (after ma- 
ture deliberation) shall seem best calculated to promote 
and advance the interest of the United States. 

Revenue and income. What is annual income? — The 
"whole amount of profit derived by an individual from 
his land, capital, and industry, within the year, is called 
his annual income. The aggregate of the revenues of 
individuals, (who compose a nation) is its national in- 
come or revenue. The estimation ofindividual, and of 
national income, is made in the same way as timt of 
every other collection of values, under whatever varie- 
ties of forms. Each product is successively valued in 
money or coin. For instance, the annual revenue of 
France is estimated at 8,0u0,000,000 francs, which here 
mean, that the aggregate annual product of the nation, 
valued separately and successively in silver coin, forms 
the value ot 8,000,000,000 francs. 

• What effect has the success of one branch of industry 
on that of another? — The prosperity and success of one 
branch of industry promotes that ot another. A good har- 
vest is favourable, not only to the agriculiurist, but like- 
wise to the dealer in all commodities generally: the 
greater his crops, the laiger will be the purchases of the 
cultivator, unless a great depression in the price of the 
article takes place; for by the ready sale of his own 
commodities, the ability' of the cultivator to make pur- 
chases of other commodiiies is augmeiitjed. On the other 
hand, an unfavourable harvest hurts the sale of the com- 
E 



38 ' lievenue and Income. 

modities at large: the same thing is applicable to manU 
factures and commerce. The success of one branch of 
commerce, furnishes more ample means of purchases^ 
and consequently, opens a vent for the product of all 
the other branches. On the other hand, the stagnation 
of one channel of manufactures and commerce, is felt in 
all the rest. 

How is this accounted for? — In the reciprocal con 
Tiexion which exists between the necessary wants ol 
mankind, and the ability to meet them, or in the actual 
demand for certain articles, either of necessity, comfort, 
or luxurj on the one hand, and the ability to supply 
them on the other. We may instance the case of the 
cultivator of saffron. As he will of himself consume but 
little, or no saffron, his revenue will consist of such 
other objects as his annual crop of saffron can procure in 
exchange. Now in case of a favourable harvest, he will 
be able to pay tor more articles of the retailer, as coffee., 
sugar, cloth, and some others which he may want, than 
in case of a bad harvest, or a great reduction in the 
price, when his ability to purchase will be limited. 

Will not the interest of the consumer be benefited bj 
a fall in the price of saffron? — It might be benefited for 
a time, but this temporal advantage will be more than 
overbalanced in the reduced amount of sales made by 
the cultivator, who, in connexion with, perhaps, several 
other individuals, whose income, in great measure, was 
derived from the purchases of the cultivators of saffron, 
now, will make but limited purchases of commodities. 
Hence if the price of an article continues very low for a 
long time, the consumers of that article will not be ben- 
efited by it. In the first place, their amount of sales will 
be greatly reduced by the loss of goods, customers, or 

?iurchasers, who, by reason of the fall in the price of saf- 
ron, are no longer able to make their usual purchases of 
the commodities which, heretofore, they have required. 
Second, the cultivators of saffron will withdraw their 
capital and labour from the cultivation of an article, 
which no longer affords them an adequate profit, and 
will direct their attention to some other pursuit, either 
in aoriculture, or something else: thus the low price of 
the article will tend, ultimately, to create rivals, where, 
befove, these were customers. 



Low prices and extreme competition- S9 

What is the ultimate effect of very low prices, and 
excessive competition in any particular branch of indus- 
try? — The ultimate effects of low prices, and extreme 
competition in one branch of business, is, first, to create 
pecuniary distress and embarrassment in that particular 
branch; second, to extend, sooner or later, similar dis- 
tress and embarrassment, in most other branches of busi- 
ness. Until, by a favourable reaction, and rise of price 
in some articles, capital and labour revert back to theii 
original destination, but not until many have suffered 
great pecuniary losses. 

In what cases can low prices be regarded as favoura- 
ble to national wealth? — When the competition is moder 
ate, and only temporary, or when a general, and gradual 
reduction of prices takes place in all branches. So that 
a general reduction in expenditure, as well as income> 
takes effect; an event that seldom, or never occurs. 

What instances can be produced of the ruinous effects 
of excessive competition? — The present condition of 
American agriculture, affords a strong and prominent 
illustration of the ruinous consequences of excessive 
competition, particularly as regards the cultivation of 
grain, tobacco, and cotton. These three important sta*' 
pies of the United States, as has been mentione(M»efore, 
are liable to great fluctuations and depression in price. 
Flour will sometimes bring ten, twelve, and even sixteea 
dollars per ba. rel, and often not five dollars, and beyond 
the influence of commerce not two dollars, though it is 
less liable to extreme variations in prices than cotton, 
which, in 1815-16, commanded thirty cents a pound, 
and in 1827^ in many places, only six cents. Instances 
have occurred, of the cultivators of tobacco abandoning 
tobacco for cotton, while the cotton planters have aban- 
doned cotton for grain and stock. In regard to wool, the 
important staple of the northern and middle states, the 
fluctuations have been great; during the war, it com- 
manded two dollars and fifty cents per pound; after the 
war, and until 1825, when the British government redu- 
ced the duty on foreign wool, to one penny per pound foi , 
iine wool, and half a penny for coarse wool, it brought 
eighty cents to one dollar per pound, and in 1826, only 
twenty-four and a half cents. The fluctuations in woollea 
50ods have also been great; woollen cloth has been sold 



40 Fluctuations in prices. 

in Pennsylvania tor one dollar and forty -five cents the 
yard, which does not exceed the cost of the raw material. 

What measure is the best remedy for extreme compe- 
tition? — The gradual multiplication of the channels of 
profitable industry, in the pursuit or attention to those 
branches of industry, to which the situation and circum- 
stances of the country, as regards soil, capacity of pro- 
duction, and habits of the people are best adapted, 
and which, on the whole, aiFord the best prospect of suc- 
cessful enterprise. 

In case of a glut in a market, why cannot one of those 
superabundant commodities be exchanged for another? — 
The glut in a particular commodity, arises from its 
having exceeded the total demand for it, in two ways, 
either because it has been produced in excessive abun- 
dance, or, as the produce of other commodities has fal- 
len short. 

What effect on the market has a prospect of demand 
for a particular article? — To raise the price of that arti- 
cle far beyond the actual demand for the same: for in- 
stance, in 1824-5, on the report of the transportation 
of British troops to Portugal, flour rose one dollar a 
bai'rel. Now as we could not expect to send more thian 
oOO.OQO barrels that year under any circumstances, to 
Portugal, the diiference of value would have been only 
300,000 dollars; but that difference might have affected 
the whole value of all the bread stuffs yet remaining in 
"lill the United States, which is probably about 30,000.. 
000 barrels, and which would have been increased a 
dollar for every barrel, had the rise caused by the ex- 
pected demand in Portugal been maintained, which was 
only in the sum of 300,000 dollars. 

What effect would this rise in the price of flour have 
liad on the consumers? — It would, probably, have had a 
beneficial effect even on them, for the farmer, if he 
could obtain six dollars instead of five for a barrel of 
flour, could better afford to make greater purchases of 
the storekeeper, who, in his turn, would thereby be 
benefited, and other classes would also participate in 
the increased facilities of obtaining money thereby. 

What is money, and what are its properties? — Money 
is not an item of revenue, (annual) nor annual product. 



Money and Banks, 41 

but a product of previous commerce or metallurgy, of a 
date more or less remote; it is the representative ot 
value, of power, and facilitates the circulation, from 
liand to hand, of the values of different commodities, 
and is an almost universal medium of exchange in busi- 
ness. 

Of what is the circulating medium, among civilized 
nations, composed? — Of gold, silver, copper, and paper, 
called bank-notes: of these, gold is regarded as the most 
valuable, as a circulating coin, silver the next, and cop- 
per the least of all. 

What is the relative value of paper money, called 
bank-notes.'' — The principal value and utility of bank- 
notes over coin, consists in the greater convenience and 
accommodation of discharging payments between indi- 
viduals in distant places, and in its facility of being con- 
veyed from one place to another. 

For what particular purpose are banks established.^ — 
ro economise the use of the precious metals, which 
could not be obtained in quantities sufficient to answer 
the great demand which exists for them, particularly in 
all commercial states. 

What causes this great demand for the precious me» 
tals? — The precious metals are, in fact, an article of 
trade, and while the demand exceeds the supplv, bul- 
lion, like corn, sugar, coffee, or any other article of com- 
merce, will advance in price, and vice versa. The high 
price, therefore, of the precious metals, for a series of 
years, accounts for the disappearance of the coin, as a 
. medium of exchange. 

What expedients have been adopted for giving facili- 
ties to the exchange of commodities, which would iiave 
been totally impracticable through tiie medium of the pre- 
cious metals? — First, by means of debt and credit in 
open account, where goods are purchased and sold, as- 
suming the features of barter, and where, after a given 
time, a single payment, instead of money, closes the ac- 
count. If money, instead of credit, were to be required 
in a current account, many millions of additional circu- 
lating medium would be required. Second, by means of 
bills of exchange and promissory notes, by which the 
merchant and dealers are enabled to purchase commodi- 
ties from others, who circulate these bills with aalition- 
E 2 



42 Circulating Medium, and Public Credit. 

al securities, by endorsement, in the payment of debt 
and other commercial transactions. This species of cir- 
culating medium, performs operations in the interchange 
of commodities to an incalculable extent, without the 
intervention of the coin of the state; while these bills in 
their transit from hand to hand, until they become pay- 
able, often perform the functions often to fifty times 
their value; and, in this manner, the circulating medium 
or coin is greatly economised. 

What is the amount of the money annually paid and 
received for 310 days in London?— T'le sum, paid and 
received through the medium of the bankers, on an av- 
erage, cannot be less than 5,000,000 pounds sterling 
daily, or, 1,550,000,000 pounds in t!ie course of a year, 
exclusive of the payments made without the interven 
lion of bankers, from one individual to another. 

What constitutes public credit? — Public credit con- 
sists in the established reputation and ability of the na- 
tional government of a state, as regards payments of 
debts, &c. 

What is supposed to be the amount of coin in circula- 
tion in Great Britain? — About 15,000,000 pounds ster- 
ling or about 67,500,000 dollars. 

What is the amount of paper circulation of the bank 
of Englaad?~25,000,000 pounds, or about 112,500,000 
dollars. 

What are the great advantages of public credit.^ — The 
great advantages of public credit to the government of a 
;^tate, is a facility of obtaining money on loan, either 
from its own subjects, the subjects of another state, or 
the government of another state. 

What properties ought banknotes to possess? — To an- 
swer tl'.o purpose of an efficient circulating medium, 
tirst, bank paper must have tlie reputation of gold and 
silver, i. e. the banks must possess the character and abi- 
lity, above all suspicion, of paying its notes in specie on 
♦lemand; otherwise, it v.ill lose its value as a circulating 
medium, and cease to answer the objects for which it 
was issued. 

Second, t!ic bank paper of any state ought '-:o be uni~ 
fonn, so as to compose an efficient circulating medium, 
calculated for every public and private purpose. Great 
embarrassment and inconvenience has frequently re- 



Bank of the United States, 45 

suited from the ^reat variety and number of banknote'^ 
in circulation, many of which were current, only in the 
place of their location, and others had circulation more 
or less limited: for instance, the banknotes in New York 
will not pass current in Philadelphia, although readily 
received in the former city. This circumstance occa- 
sions great embarrassment to travellers, &c. 

On what conditions oughtbanks to be allowed to issue 
their note<^ as current money? — The general solidity of 
the subscribers as capitalists, must be ascertained be- 
yond a doubt. And the obligation, to give ample and full 
security to pay specie for their notes on demand, must 
be rijcidly enforced. 

What effect has the bank of the United States had on 
the currency of the nation? — The establishment of the 
national bank, on the principles above stated, sustained 
by the power and credit of the United States, has tend- 
ed to build up, and maintain an efficient and uniform 
circulating medium, adapted to all public and private 
purposes, and altogether independent of the state banks. 

What has been the course pursued by banks of estab- 
lished reputation, when obliged to suspend specie pay- 
ment, (for a time).'' — Upon experience, banks, (the bank 
of England for instance) have been in the habit of pay- 
ing specie for their notes, of a low denomination only, 
while they have refused to pay in specie for their notes 
of a higher denomination. And, in policy, it is clear, that 
the ready payment of notes, of small denomination only, 
in coin, will soon restore confidence in the paper of any 
amount; and, consequently, render a general payment 
in coin easy and safe. 

Is the banking system to be regarded as advantageous 
to a nation? — It will be highly advantageous, or greatly 
injurious, according to the manner in which it will be 
conducted. In the United States, it has been productive 
of very great injuries and evils, as well as important ad- 
vantages. In those states where it has been conducted on 
right principles, it has produced great advantages and 
benefits to the community. In many others, particularly 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kentucky, where issues of pa- 
per money to an immense amount have been made, with- 
mit an adequate capital in specie, to sustain their credit. 



44 Effects of the Banking System. 

they have produced great losses, einb^rrassmeiits, and 
evils to the community. 

What are the effects resulting from the suspension ot 
specie payments in the United States? — First, the trea- 
sury has been thereby greatly embarrassed, and during 
the' war, compelled to accept the payment ot'duties and 
taxes in the local currency of the several banks, the 
credit of which was very low. Second, it has been com- 
pelled to augment the amount of the national debt, hoth 
funded and floating, by issues of treasury notes, to meet 
the public engagements, at places where it could not 
command the local currency. Third, a depreciation of 
real estate in value of thirty-three, forty, and fifty per 
cent in Maryland and Virginia; and even to some extent 
in those states in which the system had been conducted 
on proper principles, has been caused by the banking 
system. Fourth, it has tended to produce general habits 
of speculation, extravagance, and contraction of debts, 
without the ability to pay them: and in the same degree has 
tended to banish and restrain habits of industry and 
economy among our citizens. Fifth, granting to incorpo- 
rated bodies the privilege to coin money, which not 
answering the purposes of commerce, has the effect to 
drain the country of the precious metals, and in theit 
stead to substitute a currency which is without any val- 
ue, except what is stamped by public confidence. 

What has been the result of the banking system in 
Great Britain? — The banking system in Great Britain 
has been productive of great advantages and benefits in- 
a political view, which perliaps could not have resulted 
Avithout the aid of this paper system; it has tended to 
augment, for a time, the national resources, by giving 
temporary stimulus to industry and labour. And the 
system of public credit, has enabled the government to 
borrow immense sums of money to meet their great ex- 
penditures. 

W'hat are the great evils the system has produced in 
Great Britain? — On the other hand, the evils and disad- 
vantages of the system have been no less prominent. As, 
iust, it has raised the public debt from about 254,000,000 
pounds, to above 1,000,000,000 pounds sterling,* and 

*JNiles'3legi£ter. 



Its effects in Great Britain. Barter. 45 

forever destroyed all idea of paying it off. Second, an- 
terior to the suspension of specie payments, the amount 
of money drawn from the people by the government, 
was about 18,000,000 pounds sterling, which now may 
be calculated at 95,000,000 pounds sterling, which is 
equal to more than twenty-five per cent, per head, for 
every man, woman, and child, in England; (paupers 
and soldiers, &c. excepted). Third, it has increased the 
paupers from 900,00©, to 2,500,000, and advanced the 
poor rates from "2,500,000 to about 8,000,000 pounds 
sterling. Fourth, it has converted an independent yeo- 
manry into herds of Russian slaves, taken away content- 
ment, given misery, banished honesty, and introduced 
corruption, so that bribery is nearly equalized by stat- 
ute, exalted the rich and designing to the highest pinna- 
cle of pomp, pride, and crime, and depressed the labour- 
ing poor to the lowest state of intelligent beings. 

As regards national industry, what has been the ef- 
fect of the banking system?— There is reason to believe, 
that the great increase and multiplication of banks in 
the United States, has tended to raise the price of la- 
bour, and, perhaps, of the raw materials, and, in this 
respect, have arrested the advance and progress of our 
manufactures and agriculture. 

Barter, <^c. What is the substitute for the precious 
metals among uncivilized nations? — Among barbarous 
tribes, many different articles, of but little value or esti- 
mation elsewhere, are used as coin. And in newly set- 
tled regions, beyond the influence of commerce, and in 
which wealth has made but little progress, and but little 
capital, in the shape of money is to be found, the system 
of barter is in general operation: here one man having a 
superabundance of wheat, exchanges it wilh another for 
cloth, of which lie is in want, while he exchanges his 
wheat with another for tea, sugar, or some other com- 
modity which he may want. In this manner the wants 
of one individual are supported by the superfluities of 
another, to some extent, without the intervention of 
money. 

Why could not the course of barter be generally 
adopted without the use of coin? — Because there are 
many individuals, whose circumstances and condition 
would not admit of their receiving an adequate compen- 



4G Barter, Revenue, 

sation for their services and labour: for instance, one 
man may have an abundance of corn, and he may be in 
want of cloth, or tea; he offers his corn to the individual 
who has cloth, or tea, which he will dispose of for sugar, 
or bacon, but does not want corn; in fact, the great un- 
certainty in this system of being able to receive ade- 
quate compensation for one's services, will operate as a 
powerful objection to its general adoption. 

Does barter prevail in the United States to any great 
extent? — fn the interior parts of the Atlantic states, and 
particularly in the new states of the west, where there 
is but a small amount of coin, barter is the most general 
mode of transacting business: here the evils of accumu- 
lation of produce, in producing too much competition 
among certain classes of tiie community, and but little 
among some other classes, may easily be perceived; for 
instance, the farmer, who raises grain, can only obtain in 
the interior of Ohio, twenty -five cents for a bushel of ' 
wheat, while he is obliged to give one dollar and fifty 
cents for a pound of tea; and the disproportion between 
the prices of agricultural productions, and of mercantile 
articles of consumption, operates very much against the 
agricultural class. 

What is the most ruinous and unfavourable condition 
of the trade of any region? — Frequent and violent fluc- 
tuations in prices, are more injurious to the interests of 
the national industry, than either long continued prices, 
high or low; for although either very high, or very low 
prices, may often operate against the interests of the 
mercantile class, yet, in time, their operation becomes 
less injurious; as all classes learn to adapt themselves 
to their circumstances, or are enabled to make more cer- 
tain calculations to meet them. 

What articles have been the usual objects of revenue 
among nations? — In all nations and communities, where- 
ever the civil compact has obtained something in the 
form of revenue has been exacted from the labors of the 
people. 

What species of revenue v/as common in ' ngland be- 
fore the time of the Romans? — Contributions in grain 
and cattle, formed a part of the revenue of the chief ol 
each tribe. The northern princes received from theii- 



Subjects of Revmue in the time of the Romans. 47 

vassals, both grain and cattle, as a free gift, and as ma«k& 
of honour and revenue. 

What was paid in the time of the Romans? — When 
Britain becawe a Roman province, a more regular system 
of taxation took place: the taxes paid by the Britains were 
levied partly in kind, and partly in money, heavy duties 
were laid on goods, imported and exported; the proprie- 
tors of mines were obliged to contribute a part of their 
profits for the use of the empire: finally a duty was paid 
on goods sold by auction, or in the public market; capi- 
tation taxes and imposts on legacies, slaves, &c.; and 
such is said to have been the excessive tyranny of the 
Romans, that they extended their system of taxation to 
dead bodies, which could not be buried until a certain 
duty was paid. 

What were subjects of revenue in the feudal times? — - 
The personal services of the subjects of chieftains, who 
possessed extensive landed estate in time of war, which 
partly answered the purpose of revenue, and consider- 
able sums were obtained by commuting all punishments 
for crimes to pecuniary fines. 

What are the most general subjects of revenue in 
Europe? — The revenue of Great Britain is obtained 
from the customs, excise duty, property tax, land tax, 
assessed taxes, stamps, the post office, and other sources, 
and in general amounts to 65,000,000 pounds sterling, 
and sometimes to a larger amount; the duties from ex- * 
cise alone, in 1813, amounted to nearly 25,734,645 
pounds sterling. That of France is obtained from regis- 
tered stamps, crown timber, the customs, salt duties, di- 
rect and indirect taxes, post office, and tax on income. 

How is the national revenue of the United States ob- 
tained? — Chiefly by the custom duties, sales of the pub- 
lic lands, and post office department; that of the indi- 
vidual states is derived from taxes, tavern licences, 
tolls, and auction duties. 

Which of these sources of revenue is the most conve- 
nient, and the best expedient} — That from the customs; 
for here a man will frequently pay an indirect tax of 
forty dollars in the purchase of articles of consumption, 
while a direct tax of only eight or ten dollars would not 
be tolerated. The circumstances of Great Britain and 



48 Population. Increase of the same. 

other nations, however, will not admitf of a dependence 
on import duties alone. Recourse must be had to excise, 
&c. 

Population. What is the manner in which an increase 
of population takes place? — Population is augmented in 
two ways; first, and chiefly, by natural increase; second, 
by means of emigration. Natural increase depends 
chiefly on the facility of procuring the means of sub- 
sistence. 

Has population a natural tendency to increase? — Pop- 
ulation has a natural tendency to increase, but this very 
increase, carries with itself the power to supply its own 
wants. The extent of population regulates the amount 
of subsistence in the same manner, as it regulates the 
supply of clothing and housing; because, with the excep- 
tion of occasional famines, the aggregate of subsistence 
raised, depends on the amount of labour bestowed on it. 
According to the actual circumstances of every country, 
the principle of population appears to exert itself in full 
force. 

In America, &c. what time is required for population 
to double itself? — In America, in twenty -three years, 
and in some districts, in which food can be easily obtain- 
ed, population will double itself under the most favour- 
able circumstances in ten years. In Great Britain in 
sixty or seventy years; in Ireland in fifty; while in 
France it will require 100 to 120 years; and in Europe, 
in general, a period still longer. 

Does population depend chiefly on the extent of land 
cultivated? — The increase of produce depends less on 
the extent of land newly cultivated, than on the amount 
of labour and capital employed on the old. This fact is 
sustained equally by the experience of the present age, 
and the general evidence of history: it constitutes that 
fair proportion between demand and supply, which cor- 
responds with the benevolent designs of Providence. 

What can be said in regard to emigration, as increas- 
ing population? — In most cases, the increase of popula- 
tion, by emigration, is much less than that by natural 
increase; though many instances may be cited of very 
great accession to the population of a country by new 
settlers. The western states of America, afford a promi- 



Population, Emigration. 49^ 

nent illustration of rapid and great increase of popula- 
tion, chiefly by emigration. 

How is emigration to be regarded by governments? — 
In most cases as an advantage. Emigrants or new 
comers, in general prove advantageous to a country; 
first, by making an increase to the population of it; 
second, by increasing the capital of the country. The 
money brought with them becomes serviceable to the 
community, iu augmenting the productive capital of the 
nation, and lowering the premium paid for its use. In 
this manner, great public benefit arises from the arrival 
of new settlers, as manufacturers; such as England and 
Prussia acquired from France on the repeal of the edict 
of Nantz: capitalists, such as the United States acquired 
from St. Domingo, by means of the insurrection, in ITDS, 
or agrici\lturists, such as the western states are now 
receiving from Europe in general. 

Into how many general classes ought population to be 
divided? — Into two general classes: first, rural popula- 
tion, employed principally in agriculture, and such oc- 
cupations as are connected with it. Second, town pop'u- 
lation, employed in commerce, the arts, and deriving 
their means of subsistence from occupations adapted to 
a dense population. 

Is the distinction between population generally, and 
town population important? — It is in towns only, that 
the benefit of collective, over a diffuse population can 
be realized: an advantage consisting in more extended 
markets; a minute subdivision of employments; the 
greater despatch and perfection of workmanship; and a 
greater supply of occupations to individuals, of every 
age and every degree of capacity. 

■ Are new comers to be regarded as intruders unpro- 
fitable, as rivals, and not customers? — in general, new 
comers will be a valuable acquisition both to town and 
country, as they will disburse in proportion to their 
income or earnings, and frequently become customers, ' 
and not rivals. 

Will not the emigration of new comers prove I'atlier 
injurious than beneficial to populous cities, large towns, 
and districts of a dense population, by creating too great 
competition in certain branches?. — This may sometimes 
prove true in regard to certain occupations already too 

F 



50 Policy of Europe in regard to Emigration. 

much overdone, in particular places; but in general, the 
advantages ofemigration to any region, far over-balance 
the disadvantages attending it: this applies more parti- 
cularly to the productive classes of society. 

What course of policy has been followed in regard to 
emigration by European nations?— The wisest nations of 
antiquity, and n»odern Holland, France, Russia, and 
even England, have acted on the policy of inviting, and 
giving adequate encouragement to foreign artizans and 
capitalists to settle in their territories, conceiving that 
this policy would not only cause a great addition to the 
population and productive capital of the country, but 
also the acquisition of many new and valuable branches 
of agriculture and manufactures, with the skill, industry, 
and machinery improved. 

W hat exception to this policy has been acted on by 
Great Britain? — A redundant population, with labour 
saving machinery, has sometimes induced Great Britain 
to adopt a different policy. 

Wliat course has been followed by the United States 
in regard to foreign artizans? — The policy pursued has 
been not very decisive on that head, and many impolitic 
restrictions, in regard to naturalization of foreigners, 
still exist. The grant of land to French emigrants, in 
Alabama, for the purpose of cultivating the vine and 
olive, is an exception to the above remark. 

What is general ratio of the increase of population? — 
The rate of increase in the means of subsistence, will 
generally regulate the legitimate increase of population. 
Every nation of considerable extent, must not only ne- 
cessarily support the greater part of its population, from 
the prmiuce of its own soil, but, by promoting resources 
o( prodzictive labour, enable those who possess this only 
resource, to apply it to the best purpose in abundance 
the means of subsistence. 

What circumstance, in regard to property, is most 
conducive to national prosperity? — Not an excess, in the 
hands of few, but the general extension of it among the 
great mass of the people. This is clearly proved by the 
case of those nations in which the greatest degree of 
prosperity and happiness exists; which is found to be 
the condition of those in which there is a general diffu- 
sion of property; or, in other words, where tne great body 



Increase of Population. 51 

of the people are in comrortable circumstances, and can 
command, without too great toil, the neceasary comforts 
of life, &c. Great Britain is more flourishing than al- 
most any other nation in Europe, and here the comforts 
of life, &c. are within the reach of a greater proportion 
of the people, timn in any other state. France stands 
next to Great Britain, as regards national wealth and 
prosperity; and Spain or Poland, is behind all the rest ol 
Europe. 

What is the case here?— Russia, Polaiul, Hungary, 
and inland provinces of Turkey, exhibit a few princely 
fortunes, with a long succession of names below the lim- 
its of taxation. Here, as in Ireland, the peasant occupies 
a hovel, without furniture, and carrying on his cultiva- 
tion with wretched implements, may convey to us the 
state of England five or six centuries ago. 

By what means can population generally be augment- 
ed? — First, by an improved cultivation of the old soil; 
second, by a recurrence to inferior soils; third, by the 
improvement of lands, naturally fertile and productive, 
but at present unreclaimed; fourth, by the gradual im- 
provement of regions, at present, either inhabited by 
barbarous tribes, or but little improved; fifth, by the 
general extension of commercial intercourse between 
distant regions, by which, the means of subsistence will 
be greatly augmented. 

What is the effect of improved cultivation, or improve- 
ment in agriculture? — Within the last sixty years, the 
produce of the soil in England has more than doubled; 
in Scotland trebled; and in Ireland, has increased nearly 
fourfold. The produce of potatoes in Ireland will average 
fifty barrels to tlie acre Irish; but, by an improved mode 
of culture, 196 barrels, weighing 28!2 pounds, each, have 
I)een obtained — to 121 barrels on an English acre. 

What is the effect of improved cultivation on inferior 
soils. Sec? — Increased amount of produce, and augment- 
ed profit to the cultivator. Tlie soil of Massachusetts is 
by far inferior to that of Virginia, or Ohio, yet the for- 
mer, by a skilful cultivation, and a right adaptation of 
produce suited to the soil, is much richer, and is enabled 
to maintain a more dense population (to the square mile) 
than either of the others. And Scotland, which fifty 



52 Increase, of Population in the United States. 

years ago was regarded as totally unfit for wheat, no->x 
raises large quantities of flour for the London market. 

Is there in Kurope a considerable quantity of land 
jet unimproved? — There is, in Great Britain, a large 
extent of marshy, fenny land, now unreclaimed, but, 
when improved, well calculated for sheep and pasturage. 

It has be'^n observed, that the population of the Uni- 
ted States augments much faster than that of Great 
Britain, or any part of Europe: to what causes is it to be 
imputed? — To the favourable climate, fertility of soil, 
variety of productions, and other natural advantages; 
but principally to the superior facility of obtaining sub- 
sistence, general diffusion of property, and the general 
ability of the mass of the people to obtain the comforts 
of life, prevalence of education, habits of virtue, intelli- 
gence, industry, and enterprise among the people. 

What has been the increase of population in the Uni- 
ted States from 1776 to 1820, a term of forty- four yeai'S? 
— About 9,638,000, an increase more than triple its 
original amount. 

In which section of this region is there the most rapid 
increase of population? — In the western states, next in 
the middle states, the increase of population in Ohio, 
within the last ten years, has been nearly 152 per cent; 
in Indiana 500; Illinois 349 1-2; and in Alabama, proba- 
bly, 1000 percent. In 1810, it had only 10,000to 12,000, 
while in 1820, there were 144,000 inhabitants. The 
population of Ohio, from 1800 to 1820, a period of twenty 
years, has augmented about 1200 per cent. The rapid 
increase in this section is chiefly owing to emigration, 
occasioned by the great facility of obtaining subsistence, 
and procuring the necessaries of life in abundance, and 
to the correct policy of the state government, and to ca- 
nals, roads, &c. 

To what causes is to be imputed the rapid increase in 
New York state? — To its great natural advantages as to 
soil, capacity of production, inland trade, &c. but in great 
measure, to the energy and enlightened policy of the 
state government, in encouraging the population, by sell- 
ing the public lands at a low price, and giving good 
titles to it, and by promoting internal improvements, iu 
roads, turnpikes, canals, &c. 

A comparison of the population of Virginia and Penn 



Causes of this increase. 53 

sylvania, for the thirty years between If 90 and 1820, 
exhibits the great superiority in the latter, as regards 
the progress of population and general improvement, 
over the former; 

1790. 1820. 

Virginia— 442,1 1 7 602,974 690,000 

Penn. ^429,099—1,049,398 625,000 

making an increase in favour of Pennsylvania, of 465,000. 
To what causes can this difference be imputed, as re- 
gards population?— Principally to the prevalence ot 
slavery in Virginia, which has the pernicious effect to 
impede the progress of population, wealtli, and general 
improvement, which circumstance may be regarded as 
the principal cause of the small increase of population, 
the backwardness of general improvement, &c. in the 
southern states, when compared with that of the north- 
ern and middle states. 

What is the present population and revenue of New 
York state?— The population is upwards of 1,616,000, 
and the state revenue, in 1825, was 105,755,843 dollars; 
viz. 

From tolls on the canals - - - 8771,780 — 
« auction duties . - - - 200,737 SO 
" salt do. .... 77,405 34 

" pther sources . _ . . 7,635 19 



81,057,558 23 

What has been the increase of population from 1800 

to 1826,a period of twenty-six years? — About 1,030,000 

inhabitants. About 586,000 in 1800, and 1,616,000 in 

1826. 



F 2 



•54 Progress of Society. 

A Table, exhibiting the population of the several states 
in 1790, 1800, 1810, and 1820. 



N. E. S. 



M.S. 



S. S. 



W. S. 





1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


Increase 








in 10 yra. 


Maine 


161,719 


228,705 


298,335 


69,630 


N. Hamp. 


1S3,35S 


214,460 


244,161 


59,701 


Vermont 


154,465 


217,895 


235,764 


17,869 


Massachu. 


422,845 


472,040 


523.287 


51,247 


R. Island 


69,122 


76,931 


83,059 


6,128 


Connecticut 


251,002 


261,942 


275,248 


13,306 




187,881 


New York 


586,000 


959,049 


1,372,812 


413,763 


New Jersey 


211fl49 


245,562 


277,575 


32,013 


Pennsylva. 


602,600 


810,091 


1,049,398 


239,30,7 


Delaware 


64,273 


72,674 


72,749 


75 


Maryland 


349,622 


380,546 


407,359 


26,804 




711,962 


Virginia 


886,149 


974;622 


1,065,366 


90,744 


N. Carolina 


478,103 


555,500 


638,829 


83 329 


S Carolina 


345,591 


415,115 


502,741 


87,625 


Georgia 


162,686 


252,433 


340,989 


98,556 




360,254 


Ohio 


45,000 


230,760 


.581,434 


320,674 


Indiana 


4,875 


24,520 


147,178 


122,658 


Illinois 




12,282 


55,211 


42,929 


Missouri 






66.58G 




Kentucky 


220,959 


406,511 


564,317 


157,806 


Tennessee 




261,727 


422,813 


161,086 


Alabama 






147,900 


127,900 


- Mississippi 




40,352 


75,448 


35,096 


Louisiana 




76,556 


153,407 


76,851 



Advance of population. In the feudal times, a few cot- 
tages formed a hamlet, and many centuries elapsed be- 
fore the hamlet became a village. In point of property, 
extremes predominated: on the one side was the lord, on 
the other his vassals; while the middle class were few in 
number, and uncomfortable in circumstances. If we 
compare such countries as Russia, Poland, Hungary, or 
the Highlands of Scotland, with the more thickly peopled 
regions of the continent, as Holland, Zealand, Flanders, 
Normandy, or on our own side of the channel, with Lan- 
caster, Warwickshire, and the West-riding of York, 
there is to be found a surprising difference in the num- 
ber and comfort of the middle class. A return of annual 



Subdivision of Employmen{. 5v 

income from the first mentioned regions, will cxliibit a 
few princely fortunes, with a long succession of names 
below the limit of taxation; in the other it will show a 
number of gradations, rising above each other in a man- 
ner almost imperceptible. 

Employment: its subdivision in society. In a primi- 
tive state of society like that of England, in the days of 
the Britons and Anglo-Saxons, or like that of the inte- 
rior of Norway in the present day, we find the inhabitants 
distributed into detached cottages or petty hamlets, each 
family being obliged to provide almost every thing for 
itself. To cultivate a lot of ground is, in such a state of 
things, indispensible; since no employment, not even 
those of first necessity, such as the business of the ba- 
ker, the tailor, or the mason, would occupy the whole of 
their time, or prove adequate to their support. Each 
household is therefore obliged to build, to brew, to bake, 
to make, and to mend for itself: how awkwardly and 
how imperfectly it is needless to say. In the course of 
ages the hamlet becomes a village, and, as ks population 
increases, a separation of employments gradually takes 
place, which goes on in an augmented ratio as the vil- 
lage becomes a small town, a large town, and, finally, a 

How far is this subdivision carried, in the event of a 
population of between 1,500 and 3,000? — The more com- 
mon species of labour, such as thai of the builder, the 
baker, the butcher, the tailor, the shoemaker, are sepa- 
rated; but in other lines the division is not complete; the 
shop-keeper is a linen and a woollen draper, a grocer, a 
druggist, a stationer; the doctor is apothecary, surgeon, 
physician; the lawyer unites the functions of conveyancer, 
land steward, and general agent; this mixture undergoes 
a decomposition, as the inhabitants increase from 5,000 
to 10,000; and in a population of 10,000 to 15,000, the 
various classes, whether of mechanics, or dealers, are 
tolerably subdivided, at least in England; though in 
France, and most parts of Europe, the subdivision, even 
in towns, is far less complete. 

Subdivision of employment in great cities. This dis- 
tinction will be marked most clearly in London, where 
the mercantile, the manufacturing, the mechanical pro- 
fessions, all assume the most simple forms. A banker 
there issues no notes, and keeps no account with his 



56 General Policy of Euroi^e. 

customers; a merchant confines his connexions to a few 
foreign sea-ports, perhaps, to a particular colony or town. 
But it is in the mechanical arts that the subdivision of 
employment takes a form the most familiar and most in- 
telligible, to ordinary observation. In London, the class 
of shoemakers is divided into makers of shoes for women, 
for children, for men, also, into boot cutters, boot closers, 
boot makers, Kven tailors, though to the public each 
appears to do the whole of his business, are divided 
among themselves into makers of coats, waistcoats, 
breeches, and gaiters. As to the ornamental or elegant 
arts, such as those of jeweller, painter, engraver, &c. a 
long list of professions limited to large towns, and 
wholly unknown in a thinly peopled district, might be 
enumerated. By fixing the attention of the workman on 
a single part of his work, it renders him very correct and 
expeditious; his performances gain equally in point of 
quality and despatch. This is the result of mechanical 
dexterity, acquired without any particular eftbrt of the 
mind. 

In what does the general policy of Europe differ from 
that pursued by the United States? — In the almost con- 
stant and frequent wars heretofore carried on for purpo- 
ses of national aggrandisen>ent and the acquisition of 
territory, the maintenance of numerous armies, and 
large navies, to sustain them. The conquest and acquisi- 
tion of foreign colonies, for commercial and military ob- 
jects. 

By what means were they maintained? — By the impo- 
sition of heavy taxes, procured from custom duties, exci- 
ses, and onthe necessaries of life. In fine, the policy of Eu- 
rope has been directed to objects of both external or foreign, 
and internal concern; while that of the United States, 
has been chiefly confined to objects of internal concern. 
Chiefly in regard to the national currency, the construc- 
tion of roads, canals, &c. for purposes of internal trade 
and communication, the encouragement of agriculture, 
manufactures, commerce, and the arts, &c. 

What has been the policy heretofore pursued by the 
nations of Europe, in regard to manufactures and the 
ai'ts? — With some slight exceptions, they have discarded 
the principles of free commerce, as advocated by many 
distinguished writers, and inflexibly maintain their own 



Encouragement of Manufactures. 57 

manufactures and agriculture, by a system of heavy du- 
ties and actual prohibitions. 

Great Britain, France, and the other most distinguish- 
ed nations of Europe, have adopted a policy calculated 
to encourage and promote their own agriculture and 
manufactures, by excluding not only the manufactures, 
but also the produce of other nations. Some of their ta- 
riffs contain 500 prohibitions. 

In what manner is American produce received? — 
American produce has to encounter not only the impost, 
but excises of the nations, which latter makes a great 
addition to the former in the effect of prohibition. 

On what principles is this system of policy advocated 
by these nations? — On two general principles; first, in 
regard to manufactures; second, in regard to revenue. 
First. In regard to manufactures, they act on the en- 
larged policy of regarding them as not merely an element 
of national wealth, but an attribute of national sove- 
reignty; like a common treasury or public force, indis- 
pensible to make, as well as to characterise a state. By 
permanent regulations, they create, promote, and main- 
tain their own industry, carefully countervailing that of 
other nations. Second. In regard to revenue, they impose 
heavy duties on the agricultural productions of other 
nations, and also on those of their own colonies, which 
could not be raised in Great Britain, and for this pur- 
pose heavy excises are imposerl on the necessaries of life, 
and some manufactured articles. 'Thus Great Britain 
imposed heav}' duties on the whiskey manufactured in 
Scotland,* which at one time rivalled that of England.t 

What is the object of the corn laws in Great Britain? 
— .The corn laws of Great Britain were enacted for the 
express purpose of securing the home market to the Bri- 
tish agriculturist, against the rivalry of those of Germa- 
ny, Poland, and other states. " The rigid enforcement of 
these laws virtually excluded the sale of our flour and 
corn in England. During the year 1825, the United 
States purchased of England, manufactured articles to 
the amount of 7,500,000 dollars, while not a barrel of 
flour could be sold in Englard.J 

* Edward. W. I. f Mr. Steward's Speech on the Woollen bil] . 
t Mr. Clay's Speech on the Tariff. 



58 Policy of the United States. 

What other regulations does Great Britain adopt for 
the encouragement of her manufactures? — Premiums and 
bounties on exportation are often granted. England 
grants a bounty of twenty -five per cent on the exporta- 
tion of linen. The eft'ect of this policy is thus to enable 
the manufactuier to successfully compete with, and un- 
dersell those of other nations, not only in the foreign, 
but even in their own markets. 

In regard to purposes of revenue, what cases, &c.? — 
Previous to 18()8, it had been the policy of Great Bri- 
tain to regard coftee as an article cultivated in the Bri- 
tish islands, and, with this view, a duty was impdsed of 
about 250 on the import price of the article, and the 
excise restrictions were so severe, as to discourage the 
consumption in every possible way. In 1809, the duty 
was reduced to about 100 per cent on the price of the 
article in the West Indies. The custom and excise du- 
ties on cocoa, at that time, amounted also to 480 per 
cent. 

What has been the general policy of the United States, 
in regard to manufactures, commerce, and the arts? — 
The power to protect and encourage agriculture, manu- 
factures, and commerce, has been exercised b congress, 
and acquiesced in by the people, ever since the first 
session of national legislation, in 1789. And the policy 
of its application to many branches of those three inter- 
ests had not been questioned. 

What articles are examples of this policy? — Our ton- 
nage has been protected by a duty of 700 per cent. The 
planting of tobacco and cotton, and the manufacture of 
sugar, have been encouraged by high and heavy duties, 
with the avowed object of protecting the domestic arti- 
cle. The manufactures of salt, of glass, and of coarse 
cottons, have been encouraged by heavy duties. 

What has been our success in these articles, and to« 
what is it to be imputed? — These articles are now man- 
ufactured in great perfection among us, in particular 
our coarse cottons, which are now cheaper by fifty per 
cent than the imported article. Our success in these 
branches, (particularly the latter) is by the advocates of 
the tariff, ascribed to these high duties on them. 

In what years were these 4;arifts enacted? — In 1789, 
in 1816, in 1818, and in 1824, when a general revision 



American System and Free Trade. oU 

of the larift'took place, and the duties were augmented 
in wool and woollen manufactures, fine cottons, cotton 
bagging, iron, hemp, and spirits. 

How are statesmen in tlie United States aftected in 
regard to this question? — The statesmen of the United 
States are divided on this questiou into two general par- 
ties, the one the advocates of free commerce, unrestrain- 
ed bj high duties and prohibitions, and the other the 
advocates of a tarift' for the protection of agriculture 
and manufactures. 

Are the latter agreed on tlie degree of protection 
which ought to be granted for the benefit of our manu- 
factures? — On this point thej are greatly divided, as 
many will advocate heavy, and even prohibitory duties, 
while others would impose duties for the sake" of revenue 
only, but which would have the effect of promoting 
manufactures: some would have a general system of 
duties, while others would have only an especial system. 
What is the American system, and what are the prin- 
ciples of its advocates? — The American system is a plan 
or course of national policy, intended for the encourage- 
ment and protection of American agriculture, manufac- 
tures, and commerce, and for the advancement of the arts 
and sciences, of heavy duties on all foreign manufac- 
tures and productions, which are likely to come into 
direct competition with domestic articles of the same 
kind, of which this country possesses the raw materials, 
or which it is calculated to manufacture or produce; 
first, in regard to the soil climate, habits, and character, 
of the people; second, for the promotion and encourage- 
ment of a judicious plan of internal improvement, by the 
construction of roads, canals, and railways, and the im- 
provement of the navigation of the rivers and streams, 
third, for the promotion of such other measures as might 
improve the condition and circumstances of the nation at 
large, and develop its resources. 

What is the course of policy recommended by the ad- 
vocates of free trade? — fo let manufactures and com- 
merce regulate themselves, and impose on tiie importa- 
tion of foreign articles, duties no higher than can be 
warranted on principles of revenue; in other words, to 
permit the free importation of all foreign articles, leaving 



60 Internal Improvements, Banks. 

manufactures to contend with the capital, enterprise, 
and experience, of those of Great Britain and other Eu- 
ropean nations, and to buy wliere they do it at the cheap- 
est rate. 

Are the advocates of free trade avowedly hostile to 
American manufactures? — They say not, but they would 
have them advance and perfect themselves gradually. 

"What are their principles in regard to internal im- 
provement? — On this subject they are probably divided, 
some of them str; ngly maintaining the right of congress 
to adopc a system of internal improvements. Others as 
firmly advocating the rights of the states alone, in con- 
structing roads and other interior communications. 
>>■ On what other subject are American statesmen at 
variance? — On the subject of banks, some denying the 
right and the policy of congress to institute a monied 
corporation, while others as firmly maintain it, and 
deny the right of the states to incorporate them. 

What effect has war on national industry? — The Bri- 
tish revenue in 1820, obtained from the excise and cus- 
tom duties, on articles of consumption, was about 22, 
000,000, pounds sterling, or 99,000,000 dollars. 

Were these taxes regarded as particularly burden- 
some to the consumer? — They were not; for being blend- 
ed with the price of the article, they escaped in a great 
measure the observation of the consumer, or were over- 
looked in the general rise of wages.* 

By what means were the people enabled to pay these 
exorbitant taxes? — Chiefly by loans, advanced by gov- 
ernment. 'I'his bold use of credit was almost whollv 
expended directly or indirectly in the extension of the 
national industry, and gave so large an addition to the 
income of individuals, as to meet completely the unex- 
ampled demand made by government after 1798. 

In what particular way did this annual expenditure 
take place? — In recruiting, clothing, and victualling the 
militia, army, and navy, in the purchase of stores, the 
building of ships of war, repairs of fortifications in con- 
tracts, pay, salaries, pensions, &c. To the capitalist, the 
war raised the rate of interest; to the lower ranks, the 

*■ Lowe's view of Great Britain, p. 32. 



Effects of a return to peace. Ui 

;;itc of wages, to the inanufacturer, the merchant, and 
in particular to the farmef, it raised the profit of stock. 

Great distress was experienced in Great Britain in 
1814, a period of peace after along succession of wars: 
what are the causes of it? — A sudden removal of the 
stimulus arising from the war, as between 200,000 and 
300,000 militia-mcn, soldiers.* and sailors, were dis- 
charged, many of whom returned to the productive em- 
ployment, while a considerable number of manufacturers, 
perhaps 100,000, ceased to receive employment in pre- 
paring arms, clothing, and other military stores; hence 
a rapid overstock of manufactures, and no less rapid fall 
of wages. The agriculturist also received an early shock 
in consequence of large importations of foreign articles. 

What is the effect of a transition from a state of war to 
a peace? — To exhibit the magnitude of a transition from 
war to peace, a brief compari^son of the sums expended 
by government during the five last years of the war, and 
the five first of the peace; during 1811, 1812 and 1813, 
ihey averaged 105,500,000 poinds sterling, while in 
1816, 1817, and 1818, a period of peace, they averaged 
(j8,000,000 pounds. 

What was the cftect of the |c-acer — The peace caxised 
an immediate reduction of nearly»^50,000,000 pounds, in 
the amount of money distributed by government to pay 
employment, or to stimulate productive industry. 

War, although a great evil, nevertheless brings some 
important advantages; it furr>ishes employment and sub 
sistence to thousands, who, otherwise, would be desti- 
tute of both; it stimulates the national industry, &c. 

What were the expenses of t!ie wars in Great Britain,. 
iVonv 1793 to 1816? — In taxes, 770,962,331 pounds; in 
loans 342,154,719 pounds; making in all 1,113,117,150.1 

Is government expenditure productive of revenue? — 
The expenditure of borrowed money, (loans) benefits 
ihe present generation. 

In what light is taxation, when expended at home, tu 
be regarded? — It operates less as a privation of wealth, 
than an instrument of circulation. It is applied to the 
extension of employment, and by increasiiig the income 

* Lowe's England, p. 5G, 60 j Colquhoun's Resources. 

G 



6iJ Rise in prices. Taxation, S^c. 

of individuals, enables them to find a fund for answering- 
its own demands. 

Suppose the whole expenditure of a nation to be 200, 
000,000 pounds st. a year, and that additional taxes to the 
amount of 20,000,000 pounds st. are imposed, what is the 
effect of this impost on the community? — A correspon- 
dent rise in the price of the articles consumed; but as the 
amount received by the treasury is forthwith circulated 
among the payers of the taxes, and applied to remuner- 
ate their exertions, the latter are enabled to indemnih^ 
themselves by an addition to the charges constituting 
their respective incomes, whether in the shape of wages, 
salary, or profits of stock. 

How compensated for the rise in the price of articles 
of consumption? — To those possessed of this power, the 
higher price paid for articles of consumption becomes a 
matter of indifference, particularly when in consequence 
of the government's demand for men and money, the in- 
crease of their income exceeds the increase of their ex- 
penses. 

Wlien is taxation injurious? — Taxation, however, is 
injurious chiefly in two ways; first, in an individual 
sense, when the parties assessed have not the means of 
indemnifying themselves; second, in a national sense, 
when the magnitude of the burden is such, as to reduce 
the profits of labour and capital materially below those 
of other countries. 

What does industry in its most extensive sense em 
brace? — It embraces every kind of employment or occu- 
pation. 

Into how many kinds may industry or labour be divi- 
ded?- — Into two general classes, viz, productive and 
unproductive? 

What may be considered as belonging to the produc ■ 
tive class? — All those pursuits or occupations, by which 
a superior value is imparted to the labour or the skill of 
men employed thereon, viz. manufactures, the mechanic 
and fine arts, commerce and the fisheries, agriculture 
and mining industry. 

What may be regarded as unproductive pursuits.^ — 
All those which do not augment the value of the labour 
and employment theron, viz. the professions of law and 



Industry in general. ^^ 

physic, the sedentary occupations, as capitalists, writer?. 

lerks, teachers, servants, &c. 
Are the unproductive pursuits to be regarded as of no 
value or use? — By no means; for although they add lit 
tie, or no value to the labour and skill devoted to them, 
yet they conduce much to the advantage and benefit oi 
society in general. 

How does this appear? — The emplovment of the capi- 
talist, in loaning liis money to the g;overnment, or to 
enterprisinof individuals, for the promotion of manufac- 
tures, the arfs, agriculture, and internal improvements, 
is highly beneficial and advantageous in developing the 
resources of the nation, and bringing them into success- 
ful operation. 

How are the profeseione to hft regarded?— —The pro- 
fessions of law and physic, although unproductive, are 
far from being useless; for in them, both the time and 
abilities of men are devoted to the performance of du- 
ties, which are required in an advanced state of society. 
The physician, by devoting his time and talents to a 
correct knowledge of the diseases, &c. of the human 
species, is better enabled to baffle and conquer them; 
and, at the same time, the other classes of society are 
at full liberty to direct their talents to occupations and 
pursuits more congenial to their disposition, habits, &c. 

The profession of a teacher is useful, as Ire performs 
his part in society; the same remark is applicable to 
clerks, writers, accountants, &c. 

In what light are the professions of players, buffoons. 
&c. regarded?— As both unproductive and useless occu 
pations, not required or wanted in society. 

Are the professions in general followed for the sake 
of profit? — This may sometimes be the case, but gener- 
ally the honour attendant on them, is a more powerful 
attraction than the gain to be realised from them. 
Hence we find the professions more thronged, than 
other occupations presenting greater facilities of ac- 
quiring wealth. 

What is embraced in the term of national industry.** — 
National industry includes agriculture, manufactures, 
mining industry, foreign coranierce, and the fisheries. 

What claim have these pursuits to the patronage ol 
the government, and the favour of the citizens? — Be- 



1)4 J\^ationnl Industry, Agriculture. 

cause Ihcy compose the channels through which neailj 
all the different classes of society, directly or indirectly, 
derive their means of subsistence, and are thus enabled 
to contribute to the augmentation of national wealth 
and prosperity. 

In what consists the relative imptirtance of agricul- 
ture to national prosperitv?^ — Agriculture may be re- 
gai'ded as of primary importance, as it is tlu" very foun- 
dation and source of all other branches of industry. 

What other important articles docs agriculture fur 
nish? — First, articles of subsistence; second, condiments 
and preparative? for the same; third, the raw materials 
of manufactures, &i\ 

What are the principal branches of American agricul- 
ture? — They may be embraced under seven distinct 
hoadfi, or prinripnl divialiMi:,, viz,, flrsi, nuxcd husbandry, 
so termed; second, rearing of stock and grazing; third, 
sheep husbandry; fourth, the cultivation of the principal 
staples of the United States, as sugar, cotton, tobacco, 
hemp, and tlax; fifth, the cultivation of fruit and vegeta- 
bles, with milk and butter markets; sixth, the miscella- 
neous culture of some of these objects with the vine, for 
making wine and o\\, yellow leaf tobacco, silk, hops, 
opiumr madder, wood, ike; seventh, coffee, spices, and 
cocoa. The last class of agriculturiil objects cannot be 
cultivated in the United States, with tlie exception of 
Florida. 

What objects docs mixed husbandry comprise? — In 
mixed husbandry the cultivator devotes his chief atten- 
tion to grain, provisions, butter, cheese, &c. varying the 
same according to the actual demands of the market; 
I he farms generally vary from 100 to 300 acres. 

What is the creative profit of mixed husl)andry, when 
compared with other agricultural objects, and what arc 
its principal disadvantages? — The general object of the 
cultivator is rather to gain a comfortable support, than to 
realise any great profit from it, (which the actual ex- 
pense of "culture, hire, labour, &c. in general forbid,^ 
and the nett profits of it generally are not greater than 
three or four per cent on the capital employed, (in- 
cluding family expenses,) though instances not unfre 



Mixed Husbandry, Grazing. 65 

quently occur, in which handsome profits have been 
realised; and, according to Bryan Edwards, a farm in 
England, conducted wiui skill and economy, will bring 
a greater actual profit, than an extensive sugar planta- 
tion in Jamaica. 

The following fact exhibits the effects of enterprise 
and economy in husbandry. The farm of Mr. ■ of 
Sterling, Massachusetts, consists of sixty-five acres, of 
which three acres are planted with potatoes, and he 
raises 100 bushels of corn, of rye sixty bushels to the 
acre, keeps eleven cows, one yoke of oxen, besides swine 
and no horse, hires no labour except in time of need; 
he has a ready market at his door for his butter and 
his calves.* 

Prod. 
Interest of capital, 180 Butter, 

Amount of wages paid, 30 Hay, 

Taxes, 19 Pork, 

Calves, 

S229 

A profit of IS 2-3 per cent. Total. 8620 

His farm is valued at 2,500 

His stock " 500 



Sg \ ^^' ^^^' ^^ 1-2 per month. 



J3,000 



391 dollars profit. 

What may be observed in i-egard to rearing of slock 
and grazing?— This pursuit requires a more extensive 
field of operation than mixed husbandry The stock arc 
generally purchased by drovers from the western re- 
gions, which are well calculated for them, and fattened 
for market in districts near the sea-board, where the 
principal market for them is found. The profit in this 
branch, and also in raising horses is considerable. 

What is the relation and condition of sheep husband- 
ry? — This branch of husbandry is carried on in the 
northern, middle, and western states, particularlv in 

* American Farmer, for 1826!< 
G 2 



66 Sheep Husbandry, Staples of the United States. 

Vermont, New York, &c., where some individuals owi; 
from 300 and 400 up to 2,000 sheep. 

What is required for this pursuit? — Lands which have 
been long cleared, a dry air, and a hilly or ifneaven as- 
pect; in general, tracts of land not containing a very 
dense population, are best suited for sheep husbandry. 

What are the profits of sheep husbandry, compared 
with the culture of grain? — It is said that more money 
can be realised on 100 head of sheep of a blood, whose 
wool will bring sixty cents a pound, than on farming 100 
acres of land in wheat, corn, and oats, with the labour 
of cultivation furnished gratuitously.* 

What are the principal breeds of sheep, and what 
wool do they yield? — The common sheep, the merino, 
the South Down of Great Britain, the long woolled sheep, 
all of which yield fine wool. The South America and 
Smyrna sheep, which yield a wool calculated for coarse 
cloths. 

What are the principal staples of the United States, 
and which the most profitable? — Sugar, cotton, rice, to- 
bacco, and flour, are ihe principal staples; of these, the 
cultivation of sugar is the most profitable. The product 
is various; in Florida an acre will yield, on an average, 
1,200 poundsof sugar, worth ninety-six dollars, and one 
and one-fifth barrels of molasses worth eighteen dollars; 
making in all 114 dollars. A negro, besides attending to 
provisions and forage, can cultivate about three acres 
Jn cane, worth in all 342 dollars. t 

In Attacapas, the sugar planters realise 200 to 300 
dollars for each hand, and the amounif is nearly two 
hogsheads to the acre in the wood land — and three hogs- 
iieadsin the prairie. 

What can be said regarding the culture of cotton? — 
Next after sugar, it has been one o Ithe most profitable 
of the staples of the S. W. states, and that article by 
which the greatest fortunes have been realised. 

What is the quantity yielded from an acre? — It will 
average 250 pounds of clean cotton from an acre, though 
in some cases even 500 pounds have been realised. 

What kinds of cotton are raised in the United States? 
Two kinds, viz. the upland and sea-island cotton. 

* Niles' Register, for April 7tb, 1821 . f Niles' Register. 



Cultivation of Fruit and Vegetables. 67 

What yields the greatest profit? — The sea-island cot- 
ion is the most lucrative, and yields twelve and a-hall 
per cent on the capital vested.* 

What is the average quantity of cotton annually 
raised in the United States? — It has-been heretofore 
about 500,000 bales, while the crop of 1826 was about 
726,000 bales, of which nearly 150,000 bales are con- 
sumed in the United States. In 1827, the cotton crop 
amounted to 957,000 bales, (Report of the secretary of 
the treasury.) 

What remarks are applicable to the cultivation of 
fruit, vegetables, &c.? — Tliis branch of agriculture is 
piincipally carried on in the vicinity of the cities and 
large towns. The cultivators of these articles generally 
improve small farms, containing from twenty up to forty 
acres, more or less. Calculating to derive their profits 
from a small tract of land well improved, instead of im- 
proving large tracts and that but imperfectly.t 

The cultivation of fruit, vegetables, &c., is by far the 
most profitable, as eiglit or ten acres devoted to fruit, 
will yield as much profit as eighty acres planted in grain. 

What are the comparative advantages and disadvan- 
tao'es of the fruit culture with those of mixed husbandry? 
— Although the culture of fruit is most profitable and 
best adapted to procure wealth, yet it is attended with 
some disadvantages and inconveniences, from which 
mixed husbandry is, in a great measure, exempt. 

The cultivator of this article is dail^ dependent on the 
markets for his subsistence; he must rise early, and un- 
dergo greater labour and hardships, enjoys less leisure 
and independence than the cultivator of mixed husband- 
ry, who is in comfortable circumstances. 

What genera! remarks are applicable to the culture 
of the sixth class of agricultural objects, as the vine, the 
olive, &c.? — The cultivation of the vine, when rightlj' 
managed, has proved very lucrative. 

' Mr, Hamilton on the tariff of 1820 + Mr. John Kendrick. 



tab Culture of the Vine and Olive, 

What kind of land does it require, and what is the 
comparative expense of cultivation when compared with 
that of corn? — The vine is adapted togravelly hills, and 
rocky ridges of steep aspect and indifferent soil; but 
does not thrive in the luxuriant intervals. One acre ot 
vines requires as great expense in labour, as three acre? 
in corn, but yields a greater comparative profit. 

What is the number of acres in France, devoted to the 
cultivation of the vine, and what is the annual average 
value of the same? — The vineyards of France produce 
annually, on an extent of 1,69.0,000 acres, the amount of 
100,000,000 dollars in wine. 

What is the produce of an acre? — 'About five hogs- 
heads of sixty-three gallons each. 

What is the price of the best wine in France?— The 
best wines in France command 600 crowns* the ton, 
of 250 gallons. About half an acre of indifferent grav- 
elly land, on the farm of Col. Carr, near Philadelphia, 
produced 260 gallons of wine, which, with the grapes, 
commanded 670 dollars. 

What may be remarked in regard to the culture ot 
the olive? — The olive may be regarded as among the 
most important and valuable of the gifts of Heaven to 
man. Perhaps it may claim tlie preference over bread, 
on account of the infinite number of vegetables which 
it renders a proper and comfortable nourishment. 

What kind of soil is calculated for it?— A dry soil. 
In passing the Alps at the Col de Tende, composed 
principally of mere masses of rock, whore ever there 
happens to be a little soil, there are a number of olive 
trees, and a village supported by them. Take away these 
trees, and the same ground in corn, would not support a 
single family. 

What important truth does this fact illustrate? — The 
great advantages and benefits which a region derives 
from having a variety of soil and surface, as the utility 
of an inferior soil is here made manifest. Without this 
tree, the country of Provence and territory of Genoa, 
would not support one-half of their present inhabitants. 

What number of trees can be planted on an acre, and 
what quantity of oil will each tree yield? — About 100 

*Niles' Register 



Culture of Coffee, British ^Agriculture. 69 

I tees, which will yield each from ten to twenty pounds 
of oil, worth three or four pence per pound. 

What remarks are applicable to the culture of coffee? 
— Coffee thrives best in a warm, gravelly mould, a sandy 
loam, or the dry, red hills, which are found in almost 
every island in the West Indies. An acre will contain 
680 trees, and will produce in the second year, from the 
new growth, 500 pounds weight per acre, in Ihe third 
year 500 pounds; in the fourth year 600 to TOO pounds; 
after which period the average annual product per acre, 
if properly attended to, will amount to 750 pounds, and 
one negro is well able to manage one and a-iialf acres. 
The plantations often contain 300 acres, one-half of 
which is devoteil. *'^ provisions and pasturage, at three 
pounds sterling per acre, clear profit. 

What are the principal disadvantages attending the 
culture of this article?— The cultivator of this article is 
obliged to transport his produce to the distance of 4,000 
miles, and, with a few tfifling exceptions, he can send it 
only to tlie markets of the metropolis, where, during a 
state of war, the produce of foreign colonies has entered 
into competition. The expenses of transportation and 
other heavy charges, before it can reach the actual con- 
sumer, have, on many occasions, produced little or no 
return to the planter, yet to the ship owner, and all the 
different classes who promote its transit, and also to the 
revenue, the pecuniary benefits are in no respect dimin- 
ished 

What arc the comparative advantages of the cultiva 
lur of coffee and that of the British farmer, and disad- 
vantages of the same? — The cultivator of coffee labours^ 
under the disadvantage that he cannot divert his capital 
and industry to diffeicnt objects. The lands are unfit for 
other articles of culture: the negroes cannot be removed, 
and even the desperate expedient of abandoning their 
lands, sacrificing two-thirds of their capital, and the 
disposal of the remaining one-third, consisting of ne- 
groes and moveable property, is not in their power, as 
if. offered for sale, who will buy them? 

What is the situation of the British farmer? — The 
British farmer, for a number of years, has been receiving 
progressively, even an increased price for every article 
p!0(luced, which he is enabled to place within the pos- 



TO Coffee, Indigo, and Cocoa. 

sessio)! of the consumer, at a comparatively small ex- 
pense. He is liable to no losses from hurricanes, or even 
from bad seasons; to him a short crop is sometimes 
rather a benefit, by reason of the increased price it wili 
occasion to some one, thus exceeding the compensation 
for any deficiencies that may occur. 

What advantage does the culture of coffee offer? — 
Coffee can be raised on lands which can neither be con- 
verted into sugar plantations, nor into fields for the cul- 
ture of maize, and other grain peculiar to tropical re- 
gions. It may be raised on the declivities of hills, and 
on lands which might remain forever useless and unpro 
ductive. 

In 1811 and 1812. the quantity of coffee in London, 
and other cities in Great Britain, was nearly 200,000., 
000 pounds, employing a capital of 10,000,000 pounds, 
to the great distress of the cultivators, the consignees 
who made the advances, and to the merchant who im- 
ported on their own account. Great sacrifices were 
made, and coffee, which had sold for 90 to 100 shillings 
per cwt., now sold for SO to 40 shillings. (Colquhuon'? 
Resources of the British Empire). 

Cocoa bears in its fifth year, and in the eighth attains 
its perfection. It produces in general two crops in a 
year, yielding at each from ten to twelve pounds, ac- 
cording to the soil and season. It will sometimes conti- 
nue in bearing for twenty years. 

What are its disadvantages? — It is obnoxious to 
blights, and shrinks from the first appearance of drought. 
It has happened that the greatest part of a whole plan- 
tation of cocoa trees, have perished in a single night, 
■without any visible cause: the pimento grows on the 
sides of hills; one tree will bear 150 pounds. 

Indigo thrives on all soils; the produce per acre, ol 
the first cutting, will be about sixty pounds, and of a 
weight and quality equal to the Guatamala. For the 
subsequent cutting somewhat less; but in Jamaica and 
St. Domingo, if the land is new, about 300 pounds to an 
acre of the second quality; and four negroes, are suffi- 
cient to carry on the cultivation of five acres, besides 
doing other work sufficient to reimburse the expenses 
of their clothing and subsistence. 

Are the three great interests of agriculture, — manu- 



Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce. 71 

factures, commerce, and the fisheries, — opposed to each 
other; or are these interests promotive of each, other? — 
These great interests of the nation mutually tend to ad- 
vance each other; for instance, the building of ships, 
(which is a very important manufacture) makes a mar- 
ket for the lumber, the iron, copper, and the hemp of the 
landed interests, and furnishes a lucrative business to 
the carpenters, blacksmiths, and others employed in the 
construction of them; and, when built and equipped for 
sea, they furnish a ready and constant market for the 
meat, grain, cider, and other articles which the farmers 
furnish. 

What advantages do the whale and cod fish present 
to agriculture? — They secure a certain and ready sup- 
port to our navy and commercial marine, a constant 
market to the agricultural interest, for the flour and pro- 
visions that are constantly required in such voyages, as 
every whale ship usually requires 200 barrels of flour, 
besides a large quantity of beef and pork, and other 
articles, in every passage around Cape Horn; a constant 
employment is afforded to the coopers &c. in making 
casks, &c. 

What is foreign commerce? — It is that trade carried 
on by the citizens of different states; and those who con- 
duct it are denominated merchants, agents, consignees, 
brokers, and clerks. 

What are merchants? — Merdiants are those who pur- 
chase commodities from the citizens of one state, and 
sell again to those of another state. 

What are agents? — Agents are those who export 
merchandise to other regions by sea, on the account and 
risk of their correspondents abroad, receiving commis- 
sions for their labour and trouble. 

What ai"C consignees?— They are a class of men who 
receive goods from their correspondents abroad, on the 
account and risk of such correspondents, for sales and 
returns, and who are remunerated by a certain com- 
mission on the sales, the amount of which is regulated 
by the well known usages of trade. 

What is the cauying trade? — It is that commerce 
vviiich is carried on with foreign regions, circuitously: 
forexample; a ship laden with provisions, flour, &c. sails 
from New York for a port in the W est Indies, whence 



72 Foreign Commevce, Home Trade. 

laden with a cargo of rum, sugar, and coffee, she sails 
for a port in France, where, in exchange for these West 
India productions, she returns to New York, or, perhaps, 
^ails to some other port in Europe, where exchanging 
the wine and brandies, she sails for the United States, 
after having made a circuitous voyage of one, two, three, 
or tour years, as the case may be. 

What, in fine, pays for the wines, brandies, or other 
articles imported into the United States? — First, the 
flour and provisions of the United States pays for the 
sugar, coffee, &c. of the West India islands, and by 
these latter articles, the wine, brandy, and other articles 
imported from Europe, are purchased for the consump- 
tion of the United States. 

What advantages docs the carrying trade afford to a 
nation? — First, it gives to the merchant concerned in 
it, the profits and gain of being the carriers to two oi 
more nations, of supplying them with several productions 
highly necessary to their comfort and convenience, and 
which they cannot procure by their own navigation. 

What constitutes the home trade? — The liome trade 
comprehends all the interior and the coasting trade of a 
country. 

What advantage does the home trade possess over 
the foreign trade? — The advantage of employing a great- 
er amount of our own capital. As trade consists in the 
exchange of various commoditits, two capitals must be 
employed in the purchase of the different articles to be 
exchanged. In the home trade, both of these capitals 
are our own, and both are employed in the purchase of 
goods that have been procured by American labour. 
tluis affording the means of maintaining their industry. 

What is the wholesale trade? — The wholesale trade 
consists in the purchase, by one class of traders, of com- 
modities from the importer, (generally in large quanti- 
ties) to be re-sold to another class of men, (the retailers^ 
who purchase commodities for the use and accommoda- 
tion of the other classes of the community. Thus many 
articles which are necessaries of life, pass through seve- 
ral different hands before they reach the consumer. 

Whatis the effect of this transfer of the same commo- 
modity from one trader to another, or of its passage 
through so many hands? — >To augment the price of the 



Retail Trade, Manufactures. , ^ 

article to the consumer, especially if he reside, in a re- 
gion remote from the sea-board. For example; in Ken- 
tucky the consumer cannot purchase a yard of London 
cloth, which originally cost six dollars at the manufac- 
tory, for less than twelve dollars. 

To what is this duplication of price to bo imputed? — 
This rise of 100 per cent, in value of the ongmal cost 
of the article, is caused by the profit of intermediate 
venders; by Itisuraiice, transportation, impost, &c. Of 
these charges, the profit of the intermediate vender ia 
Kentucky is probably tlie greatest; the nett profit of the 
western traders has been rated at thirty three and one- 
third per cent, on the capital employed, and, formerly 
was still higher. This is owing, in some measure, to the 
great cost of land transportation, and the coriiparative 
demand for foreign articles over the supply. 

Would the same effect, in other words, rise in the 
price of the article, take place in regions within t'u in- 
fluence of commerce? — It probably woild not; for here, 
the great competition among t!u' mercantile ; lasses^ 
actually tends to keep down the price of the commodity. 

What are tite benefits to commerce, arising from man- 
ufactures.'' — The establishment of manufactures creates 
a demam) for the raw materials, many of which cannot 
be procured in the United States: tliis is more particu- 
larly the case in regard to iron, hemp, wool, flax, salt- 
petre, hides, indigo, fustic, and other dye stuffs, lead, cop- 
per, brass, tin, mahogany, and various other articles. 

What other benefits arise to commerce, from manu- 
factures?— -'riie manufacturers also purchase for their 
domestic consumption, great quantities of imported 
goods, benefiting the merchant. The trans5»ortation of 
American raw materials, fuel, buildilig materials, and 
food for tlie workmen, occasions a very great trade and 
business in boats, shallops, and coasting vessels, highly 
favourable to the merchants who own them, ami the 
transportation of American manufactures, in like man- 
ner, to the markets in our rivers, bays, and coaf;ts, is 
profitable to the owners of vessels. 

W^hat, in Great Britain, constitutes the principal part 
of their tonnage? — The coasting trade, which, also, in 
the United States, has greatly increased since tjie ej ten- 
sion of our manufacturing establishments. 

H 



74 Mining Industry, Internal Improvements. 

What is the general practice of the most distinguish- 
ed commercial nations? — To import great quantities 
of raw materials, and export large quantities of manu- 
factured articles. These operations, in fact, constitute 
the greater part of their commerce. 

What can be said of mining industry, in regard to 
agriculture? — The operations of mining industry have a 
beneficial effect on the landed interests; first, in building 
up a ready and constant demand for flour, grain, and 
provisions, for which eitlier cash or some other article in 
demand, is given to the agriculturist; second, by render- 
ing valuable, and bringing into market, land of inferior 
soil, or not fit for cultivation; third, by gradually pro- 
moting inland trade, and affording constant employ- 
ment to numbers of persons. 

Whatinstancescanbebrought, of the ad vantages of mi- ' 
ning industry to agriculture, &c.? — Mauchchunk, on the 
_Lehi, from an obscure hamlet, has, in a short period of 
time, become a thriving and populous village, containing 
Xiearly 2,000 persons. Mount Carbon, on the Schuylkill, 
has also received a great increase in population and bu- 
siness, from the mining operations carried on in that 
section of the state. 

What can be said in regard to internal improvements? 
. — A libera! and extensive plan of internal improve- 
.ments, judiciously executed, is a measure, or course of 
policy, perhaps the most important that could be adopt- 
ed, to advance the United States in population, wealth, 
and national prosperity. 

By whom ought internal improvements to be made; 
by the general government, those of the s-eparate states, 
or by incorporated companies? — The interest of the 
country seems to require, that the national government 
ought to possess the power to construct roads and ca- 
nals, whenever the same can be considered of sufficient 
importance in a national view, as the improvement of 
the navigation of the Ohio and the Mississippi. 

What are the principal objects in the construction of 
internal improvements? — First, to facilitate commercial 
intercourse and trade between the seaboard and distant 
sections of the interior, by reducing the price of trans- 
portation; second, to form avenues of ready communica- 
tions for military objects, as the want of such avenues of 



Canals, Land and Water carriage. ^5 

communication was severely felt during the late war, 
when the transportation of a barrel of flour frovn Phila- 
delphia to the lakes, cost 100 dollars; third, for political 
objects, to unite and bind together in bonds of greatei 
unity, and stronger interest, distant sections of the Uni- 
ted States. 

What places in the United States are prominent ex- 
amples of the beneficial eft'ects of canals?— Rochester 
and Buftalo, in New York. The former situated on the 
Erie canal, at the falls of the Gennessee river, now con- 
tains a population of 8,000 persons. Its growth has been 
but of recent origin: in 1812, it was an obscure, new 
settlement. Buffalo also owes its present flourishing con- 
dition, in great measure, to the opening of the Bale ca- 
nal. 

Do canals have a favourable effect on the country, in 
regard to travel through it? — The construction of ca- 
nals increases the travel on the roads; heavy commodi- 
ties, which, before the construction of the Erie canal, 
were conveyed on the roads, are now carried by water^ 
and multitudes of travellers go in boats but travelling; 
in stages has also greatly increased on the roads, and 
they now exhibit a more flourishing aspect than ever. 
The tolls received on the turnpike connecting Mauch- 
chunk with the Susquehannah, were, in 1835, nearly 
double the usual amount; and- all the roads which lead 
either from the Susquehannah or from Philidelphia to 
Mount Carbon and Mauchchunk, now exhibit an enli 
vening aspect. 

In regard to England, the same remark is true; that 
region containing a territory not much greater than 
Pennsylvania, has an extent of inland navigation of 3,000 
miles; and Philips, an eminent writer on inland naviga- 
tion, remarks, that the roads in England are continually 
filled with coaches, chairs, wagons, and horsemen, going 
£o and from the different villages, towns, and capital 
cities. (Report of Mr. Wm. Lehman.) 

JEffects of land and water carriage. A merchant ship- 
ped from Philadelphia fifteen crates of queensware, by 
way of New Orleans, to Maysville, 600 miles up the 
Ohio, in a steamboat. At the same time, he sent fifteen 
crates over land, by Pittsburg, to the same place, all of 
which arrived on the ^ame day at his store, and those 



76 Commerce of the West, Grand Trunk Canal. 

sent by water, at less expense than those over land; the 
one was bj a water carriage of nearly 4,500 miles; the 
other was convej'ed by land carriage of about 400 miles. 
(Mr. Porter's remarks on the bill for the Pennsylvatiia 
canal.) 

Commerce of the West. In October, 1825, there arri- 
ved in Louisville, from New Oi'leans, about 25,000 tons. 
And 20,000 tons of produce, were sent to New Orleans 
in steamboats, and 5,000 flat boats, averaging, each, for- 
ty tons: lead, from Missouri, as reported to congress^ 
5,400 tons, and from Illinois: 80,600 bales of cotton, from 
Tennessee and Alabama, making in all 250,400 tons. 

What is the extent of the trade of the western states? 
—The interior tirade of the western states, is estimated 
lit from 250,000, to 350,000 tons. 

What prominent example of the powerful effects of 
canals, in promoting the advancement of manufactures, 
can be presented?— The construction of the Grand 
Trunk canal, in England, exhibits favourable effects 
as regards manufactures. It is ninetj* -three miles in 
length, and passes, at Hare Castle, through a tunnel 
2,888 yards in length, nine feet wide and twelve feet 
high. When the charter for this canal was first obtained^, 
its advantages were so highly appreciated, that almost 
all the proprietors of the grounds through which it was 
intended to pass, relinquished their claims without com- 
pensation, and time soon realised their liberal anticipa- 
tions. 

What were the effects of it? — In all directions it gave 
birth to improvements ofthe greatest importance. Mines 
of coal, rock salt, and iron, and quarries of stone, previ- 
ously, of little or no value, were immediately worked 
upon an extensive scale, and to great profit, and manu- 
facturing establishments of queenswarc and glass, which 
may be said at this time to supply the world, were put 
into operation. The salt mines of Northwich, which are 
contiguous to this canal, and may be regarded as one of 
the wonders of England, owe to .this work much of their 
importance and value. Previous to the construction of 
this canal, the product of the salt mines was consumed 
exclusively in Cheshire; but now, in consequence of the 
facilities of transportation resulting from it, the manu- 
facture has augmented to about 60,000 tons per annum. 



Home MdrJcet. ■ 77 

Large and extensive manufactuiiug establishments of 
glass and quecnsware have risen around it, one oi 
which employs 800 hands. 

In what does the demand of home market consist?— 
First. The large commercial cities on the seaboard, 
and the populous towns of the interior, the population 
of which are dependent for their means of subsistehce, 
on foreign commerce and navigation, trade, manufac- 
tures, the mechanic arts and sciences, the professions of 
law, physic, and divinity, the inoperative pursuits, and 
other miscellaneous employments to be found chiefly 
in populous cities, and suited to a dense population. 

Second. Supplies for the purposes of navigation antl 
commerce, the whale fishery, &c. 

Third. The manufacturing establishments of iron, 
woollen, &c., in the interior. 

Fourth. The agricultural interest employed in the 
cultivation of cotton, sugar, &c. 

Fifth. In the demand for the interior trade, whether 
in wagons and stages, steamboats, &c. 

Sixth. In the population employed in mining industry, 
&c.: to the above m;iy be added the army and navy, 
which, in Europe, constitutes an important demand for 
pi-ovisions, grain, &c., but .far less important in the Uni~ 
ted States. 

What are the principal articles required in the above? 
—These sources of demand require large quantities of 
flour, grain, provisions, and other agricultural produc- 
tions for subsistence, coal and wood for fuel, cotton, 
wool, iron, hemp, and other raw materials of manufac- 
tures. 

Does the home market constitute as important a de- 
mand for agricultural productions in Great Britain, as 
it is regarded in the United States? — The home market 
is regarded as by far the most important in Great Bri- 
tain, as will appear by the following fact: the consump- 
tion of grain of all kinds, is estimated at about 50,000, 
000 quarters, which is equal to 400,000,000 bushels, and 
1,000,000 quarters are annually imported from other re- 
gions. In Great Britain, the number of families employ- 
ed in agriculture iS 978,656; in trade, manufactures, 
mechanical arts, lj350,293j and in all other occupations. 



78 Home Market, Fuel consumed. ifVT ' Q . 

612,488; the two latter composing a number twice a? 
gre^t as that of the agricultural class. 

The advantages and benefits resulting to agriculture,' 
from the great demand required for its various produc- 
tions in manufactures, commerce, navigation, and the 
fisheries, have been already exliibitcd; now it will be 
proper to show the advantages and benefits annually oc- 
casioned to that important interest, by the great de- 
mand for flour, grain, provisions, fruit, fuel, and also 
for raw materials, .vyhicli^as reljaired in thp. commercial 
cities, on the seaboii^cd. ''"^ 

During the year 1^27, there Wp.vp r.nnsumed in Phila- 
delphia, fuel ^to the value of §880,043, 46, of which 
were 140,lfo'cords of wood, and about' 41,000 tons of 
coal. For the consumption of London, it is calculated 
that 10,000 acres are devoted to vegetables, and 4,000 
to the cultivation of fruit. During 1826, 1,500,000 chal- 
drons of coal were brought into London, for its con- 
sumption, equal to 54,018,000 bushels. At the rate of 
the consumption of Philadelphia, the whole region of 
tlie United States would require for their annual con- 
sumption, fuel to the value of §50,980,548, or, 7,282,936 
tons of coal, or, about 12,745,000 cords of wood. The 
annual consumption of meat, flour, grain, domestic li- 
quors, vegetables, and fruit, besides fuel to a great 
extent, and raw materials of manufactures, in the sea- 
ports and large towns of the interior, must constitute a 
ready and sure demand for tliese productions, which arc 
furnished almost entirely by the agricultural interest. 

The manufacturers of wool in the New England states, 
including mechanics and labourers, subsist 20,000 fami- 
lies, or 120,000 persons, and these will consume the 
products of 40,000 families of agriculturists. The iron 
establishments in New York, on the borders of X-ake 
Champlain, consume the surplus provisions not only of 
Essex and Clinton counties, but large quantities from 
Vermont, which formerly went to New York. They 
command a higher price at home than in Albany, in 
consequence of the demand from the manufacturers. 
(Report of the Albany committee, oil the woollen manu- 
facture.') 



